help button home button Endocrine Society Molecular Endocrinology ENDO 08 Sessions Library
HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS
Molecular Endocrinology, doi:10.1210/me.2004-0231
This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Supplemental Tables and Figures
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Right arrow Citation Map
Services
Right arrow Email this article to a friend
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrow Request Copyright Permission
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Costagliola, S.
Right arrow Articles by Vassart, G.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Costagliola, S.
Right arrow Articles by Vassart, G.
Molecular Endocrinology 18 (12): 3020-3034
Copyright © 2004 by The Endocrine Society

Delineation of the Discontinuous-Conformational Epitope of a Monoclonal Antibody Displaying Full in Vitro and in Vivo Thyrotropin Activity

Sabine Costagliola, Marco Bonomi, Nils G. Morgenthaler, Joost Van Durme, Valérie Panneels, Samuel Refetoff and Gilbert Vassart

Institut de Recherche Interdisciplinaire en Biologie Humaine et Moléculaire (S.C., J.V.D., G.V.), Faculté de Médecine, University of Brussels, B-1070 Brussels, Belgium; Institute of Endocrine Sciences (M.B.), University of Milan, Istituto Auxologico Italiano Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS) and Ospedale Maggiore di Milano IRCCS, 20122 Milan, Italy; Research Department (N.G.M.), B.R.A.H.M.S. AG, Biotechnology Center Hennigsdorf, 16761 Berlin, Germany; Biochemie-Zentrum-Heidelberg (V.P.), University of Heidelberg, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany; Department of Medicine and Pediatrics (S.R.), University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637; and Department of Genetics (G.V.), Erasme Hospital, University of Brussels, B-1070 Brussels, Belgium

Address all correspondence and requests for reprints to: G. Vassart, Institut de Recherche Interdisciplinaire en Biologie Humaine et Moléculaire, ULB, 808 Lennik Street, B-1070 Brussels, Belgium. E-mail: gvassart{at}ulb.ac.be.


   ABSTRACT
TOP
 ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 REFERENCES
 
An experimental murine model of Graves’ disease was used to produce monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) with thyroid stimulating activity. Two of these, IRI-SAb2 and IRI-SAb3, showed particularly high potency (in the low nanomolar range) and efficacy. IRI-SAb2 behaved as a full agonist of the human TSH receptor (TSHr), even when tested in physiological salt concentrations. Both IRI-SAb2 and IRI-SAb3 were displaced from the TSHr by autoantibodies from patients with Graves’ disease or harboring thyroid-blocking antibodies, but not from control subjects or patients with Hashimoto thyroiditis. The epitopes of IRI-SAb2 and IRI-SAb3 were precisely mapped, at the amino acid level, to the amino-terminal portion of the concave portion of the horseshoe structure of TSHr ectodomain. They overlap closely with each other and, surprisingly, with the epitope of a mAb with blocking activity. When injected iv in mice, both mAbs caused biological and histological signs of hyperthyroidism. Unexpectedly, they also triggered an inflammatory response in the thyroid glands. Delineation of the conformational epitopes of these stimulating antibodies opens the way to the identification of the molecular mechanisms implicated in the activation of the TSHr.


   INTRODUCTION
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 REFERENCES
 
TOGETHER WITH THE LH/choriogonadotropin (LH/CGr) and FSH (FSHr) receptors, the TSH receptor (TSHr) constitutes the glycoprotein hormone receptor subfamily (GPHR); these receptors are members of the large family of rhodopsin-like G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) (1, 2, 3, 4). GPHRs harbor a large N-terminal extracellular domain, responsible for the specificity of hormone recognition and binding (5, 6), and a heptahelical transmembrane region that it shares with all GPCRs. This serpentine portion is responsible for transmission of the activation signal, mainly to the G protein Gs. The extracellular domain is composed of two cysteine-rich clusters flanking nine leucine-rich repeats (LRRs). A structural model of the LRR portion of the TSHr ectodomain, based on the crystal structure of the porcine ribonuclease inhibitor (7), has been proposed (8). It takes the shape of a segment of a horseshoe, made of a succession of ß-strands and {alpha}-helices, on the concave and convex surfaces of the horseshoe, respectively. According to current knowledge, GPHRs are thought to be activated by their respective ligand (TSH, LH/CG, FSH) after interaction of the ß-subunit of the hormones with specific residues of the ß-strands of the horseshoe (6).

In contrast to the LH/CG and FSH receptors, the TSHr can also be activated by autoantibodies directed against its ectodomain (1). This is the immediate cause of thyrotoxicosis and thyroid hyperplasia in patients with Graves’ disease (9, 10). After years of unsuccessful attempts, murine models of Graves’ disease have been developed (11, 12, 13, 14), and this has recently opened the way to the isolation of a limited number of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) with thyroid-stimulating antibody (TSAb) (15, 16, 17). These mAbs were shown to stimulate the TSHr in the nanomolar range ex vivo and, when compared with bovine or human TSH, acted as partial agonists. Finally, a single human mAb with TSAb activity has recently been generated from peripheral lymphocytes of a patient with Graves’ disease (18). In none of these cases have the epitopes recognized by the mAbs been precisely delineated.

mAbs with TSAb activity constitute invaluable tools with which to probe the mechanisms implicated in the intramolecular transduction of the activation signal between the ectodomain of GPHRs and their serpentine domain. In the present study, we describe generation of a new series of mAbs with thyroid-stimulating and -blocking activities. One of them, IRI-SAb2, is a full low nanomolar agonist of the TSHr, the epitope of which, surprisingly, was shown to overlap closely with the epitope of a potent blocking antibody. After iv injection in mice, IRI-SAb2 caused hyperthyroidism. In addition to histological signs of hyperstimulation, thyroid glands from injected animals displayed signs of infiltration with macrophages and follicular necrosis.


   RESULTS
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 RESULTS
DISCUSSION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 REFERENCES
 
Mouse Selected for the Hybridoma Fusion
Twenty female NMRI mice were immunized against the human (h)TSHr following the protocol of genetic immunization described previously (12). Mice were bled 8 wk after the first DNA injection and antibodies against TSHr were detected by fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) in all sera from immunized mice, with values ranging from 20 ± 2.5 arbitrary fluorescence units (AFUs) to 91 ± 7 AFU (control values: 6 ± 0.82 AFU). TSH binding inhibiting Ig (TBII) activity was similarly present in all sera from immunized mice, with values ranging from 42–92% inhibition of labeled TSH binding (control mice: 2 ± 0.5%). TSAb activity was detectable in only five sera, with cAMP values higher than 5 pmol/ml (control mice: 0.77 ± 0.15 pmol/ml). Three mice showed total T4 significantly higher (>2.8 ± 0.28 µg/dl) than controls. Mouse 42, positive in all four assays and displaying the highest values in TBII, TSAb, and total T4 (Table 1Go), was selected for hybridoma fusion. All the parameters were expressed as mean ± range.


View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Table 1. Autoimmune Profile of the Mouse Selected for Hybridoma Fusion

 
Screening and Selection of mAb with TSAb Activity
Of 1200 hybridoma that were analyzed, 129 scored positive after screening by FACS on JP19 cells. Thirty of these were positive for TBII in the TRAK (TSHr autoantibodies commercial assay), of which seven stimulated cAMP production in the JP26 cells, under incubation in normal-salt medium (see Materials and Methods). The cAMP values ranged from 9.3 ± 0.2 pmol/ml to 188.3 ± 8.7 pmol/ml (control supernatants: 1.49 ± 0.15 pmol/ml). Of the seven supernatants displaying TSAb activity, two achieved a stimulation of cAMP production reaching 67% (IRI-SAb2, 188.3 ± 8.7 pmol/ml, or 126-fold the basal cAMP value) and 20% (IRI-SAb3, 56 ± 1.2 pmol/ml, or 37-fold the basal cAMP value) of the maximum stimulation caused by a saturating concentration of bovine (b)TSH (100 mIU/ml, 280 ± 21 pmol/ml). All the parameters are expressed as mean ± range. These two mAbs were selected for production and purified for further analysis. The IgG isotypes were IgG2a for IRI-SAb2 and IgG1 for IRI-SAb3.

Functional Characterization of IRI-SAb2 and IRI-SAb3
TSAb Activity of IgGs.
Various concentrations of purified IRI-SAb2 and IRI-SAb3 were tested for their ability to stimulate cAMP production in JP26 cells incubated in normal salt medium. A concentration-dependent increase in cAMP production was observed in both cases, with maximum stimulations of 131-fold and 105-fold the basal cAMP values for IRI-SAb2 and IRI-SAb3, respectively (Fig. 1AGo). These values represented 98% and 80%, respectively, of the maximum stimulation generated in the same experiment by a saturating concentration of bTSH (100 mIU/ml). EC50 values were 2.75 ± 0.25 nM and 16.5 ± 3.5 nM for IRI-SAb2 and IRI-SAb3, respectively. By comparison, the maximal stimulation achieved by the previously characterized IRI-SAb1 (15) (EC50 = 3.6 ± 0.6 nM) was only 10% of the value achieved with bTSH. These results indicate that under the conditions of the assay, IRI-SAb2 behaves as a full agonist of the human (h)TSHr. All the parameters are expressed as mean ± SD.



View larger version (25K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 1. Effect of mAbs on cAMP Accumulation and TSH Binding

A and B, Concentration action curve of IgG (A) or Fab (B) of IRI-SAb1, -2, and -3 on intracellular cAMP accumulation measured on JP26 cells in normal isotonic salt medium. Results are expressed in picomoles cAMP/ml. bTSH (100 mIU/ml) was used to evaluate the maximum stimulation of cAMP production. All measurements were performed in duplicate. C, Effect of various concentration of IgG of IRI-SAb1, -2, and -3 or mAb 1H7 on inhibition of [125I]bTSH binding to immobilized hTSHr on coated tubes, as measured by commercial assay (DYNOtest TRAK human). Results are expressed as [125I]bTSH bound, in counts per min. All measurements were done in triplicate.

 
Kinetics of intracellular cAMP accumulation after stimulation of JP26 cells with 30 µg/ml of the three mAbs or with bTSH (1 mIU/ml) were similar; 80% of the maximal values were reached in less than 5 min for IRI-SAb1 and after 10–20 min for IRI-SAb2, IRI-SAb3, and TSH. The mean time for achieving 50% of the values reached at 2 h was 4 ± 1 min for IRI-SAb2, 7 ± 1 min for IRI-SAb3, and 5 ± 1 min for TSH (mean ± range) (data not shown).

TSAb Activity of Fab Fragments.
The efficacies of the three mAb Fab fragments on stimulation of cAMP production were similar to those obtained with the corresponding intact Igs, with IRI-SAb2 behaving again as a full agonist (Fig. 1BGo). EC50 values were in the same range as those displayed by intact IgGs (1.2 ± 0.5 nM and 74 ± 4 nM for IRI-SAb2 and IRI-SAb3, respectively). All the parameters are expressed as mean ± SD.

TBII Activity of mAbs.
Various concentrations of purified IRI-SAb1, IRI-SAb2, and IRI-SAb3 were incubated with 125I-labeled TSH on TSHr-coated tubes (Fig. 1CGo). The mAb 1H7, detected in the original screening as blocking the TSH binding but devoid of TSAb activity, was also tested. IRI-SAb2, IRI-SAb3, and 1H7 competed with TSH binding, and the concentrations required to displace 50% of the 125I- labeled TSH were 2 ± 0.5 nM (0.3 ± 0.075 µg/ml), 3.3 ± 0.2 nM (0.5 ± 0.03 µg/ml), and 2.6 ± 0.2 nM (0.4 ± 0.03 µg/ml), respectively. In contrast, IRI-SAb1 was poorly effective and at 10 µg/ml (66 nM), less than 5% of the 125I-labeled TSH was displaced. All the parameters are expressed as mean ± SEM.

The purified antibodies were subsequently labeled with acridinium ester and used in saturation experiments on TSHr-coated tubes. (For saturation curves and Scatchard plots, see supplemental Fig. 1Go published as supplemental data on The Endocrine Society’s Journals Online web site at http://mend.endojournals.org.) The Kd of IRI-SAb1 was 2 x 10–8 M. The binding affinity of IRI-SAb2, IRI-SAb3, and 1H7 was in the 10–10 M range, but biphasic saturation curves were observed (Kd1: 0.7 x 10–10 M, 2.8 x 10–10 M, 1.2 x 10–10 M, respectively. Kd2: 12.3 x 10–10 M, 19.6 x 10–10 M, 13.3 x 10–10 M, respectively). These Kd values were similar to that of bTSH (Kd1: 0.2 x 10–10 M, Kd2: 4.1 x 10–10 M) (19) and a recently published human monoclonal antibody with TSAb properties (Kd: 5 x 10–10 M) (18). The observation of two different dissociation constants exhibited by IRI-SAb2, IRI-SAb3, and 1H7 for the TSHr suggests that, in this coated tubes assay, we are dealing with a heterogeneous population of TSHr molecules. Presumably, the highest affinity is displayed by receptors with an intact extracellular domain. The lower (but still nanomolar) dissociation constants are expected to correspond to receptors with a partially denatured ectodomain.

Competition with Sera from Patients with Graves’ Disease for Binding to TSHr.
The four mAbs labeled with acridinium ester were used as binding tracers on TSHr-coated tubes (20). Competition was assayed with the sera from 104 euthyroid control subjects, 100 patients with Graves’ disease, eight patients scoring positive in a TSH-blocking antibody (TBAb) assay, and 20 TBII-negative patients with Hashimoto’s disease. All these sera were also evaluated in a TSH-TRAK assay (21). Except for IRI-SAb1, all mAbs were efficiently and significantly competed for by autoantibodies from Graves’ disease, or TBAb-positive patients, when compared with control subjects or Hashimoto’s patients (Fig. 2Go).



View larger version (24K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 2. Competition between mAbs and Patient Antibodies for Binding to the TSHr

A total of 232 sera were tested for their inhibitory effect on the four mAbs to the TSHr. Control: 104 control sera from blood donors with no personal or family history of endocrine autoimmune disease. Graves: 100 sera from patients with Graves’ disease containing TSAb. TBAb: eight sera from TBAb-positive patients with autoimmune hypothyroidism. Hashimotos: 20 sera of patients with autoimmune hypothyroidism without TBAb or TBII. A, B, C, and D, IRI-SAb1, -2, -3, and mAb 1H7, respectively, were used as tracers. E, bTSH used as tracer (LUMItest TRAK, human, BRAHMS diagnostica, Berlin, Germany). Results were expressed as percentage inhibition of antibody or bTSH binding. Distribution of autoantibodies is shown as dot plots and box plots, indicating 25–75th percentiles (box) with median (line), 10–90th percentile (whiskers). ***, P < 0.0001 (by Mann-Whitney rank sum analysis)

 
Characterization of Epitopes
IRI-SAb1.
FACS results from COS-7 cells transfected with the TSHr of various species (Fig. 3AGo) demonstrated that IRI-SAb1 recognizes the hTSHr very efficiently and, to a lesser extent, the sheep receptor. It did not bind to TSHr from rat, cat, or dog (Fig. 3AGo) or to the mouse receptor (see Fig. 7Go). A first analysis of the binding of IRI-SAb1 to a series of chimeras between rat and human TSHr pointed to a segment of the ectodomain between positions 21 (G21, the first amino acid after the signal peptide) and 165, encompassing the N-terminal cysteine cluster portion and the first half of the horseshoe-structured region (containing LRRs 1–5) (Fig. 3BGo). Alignment of TSHr of various species (Fig. 3DGo) identified two residues, Q45 (located in the N-terminal cysteine cluster region, Fig. 3CGo) and Q91 (located in the loop between the second ß-sheet and the second {alpha}-helix of the LRR region, Fig. 3CGo), which were substituted in the TSHr from nonrecognized species (by a H45 and an R91, respectively). When these two human-specific residues were introduced in the rat TSHr background, recognition of the chimera was restored (Fig. 3BGo). These results indicate that Q45 and Q91 are most likely part of the epitope of IRI-SAb1. Finally, this antibody was tested by FACS on the T90 chimera (6), in which side chains of nearly all residues of the LRRs of the TSHr, predicted to face the solvent and interact with the hormone or antibodies, were exchanged for their LH/CGr counterparts (X2,3,4,5 see Fig. 4CGo) (6). These amino acid substitutions did not affect recognition by IRI-SAb1, indicating that, in agreement with the binding data (Fig. 1CGo), the epitope of this antibody does not overlap with the inner surface of the horseshoe region of the TSHr (Fig. 4DGo).



View larger version (47K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 3. Localization of IRI-SAb1 Epitope

A, COS cells transfected with TSHr from various species were stained with mAb IRI-SAb1 or mAb 3G4 used as control and analyzed by FACS as described in Materials and Methods. B, Mapping of the epitope of IRI-SAb1 with rat-human TSHr chimeras transfected in COS cells. Constructs expressing fusions proteins containing rat TSHr ectodomain fragments (black segment, without or with substitutions H45Q and R91Q) inserted in hTSHr (white segment) are represented on the right part of the figure in front of their respective binding profiles measured at the cell surface by FACS. Cells were stained with mAb IRI-SAb1 or mAb 3G4, used as control. C, Schematic representation of the N-terminal cysteine cluster and LRR portion of TSHr with the two residues implicated in the IRI-SAb1 epitope. D, Alignments of the N-terminal portion of the TSHr of various species. LRR1, -2, and -3 are boxed, and amino acids 45 and 91 are highlighted.

 


View larger version (32K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 7. IRI-SAb2 and 3 Stimulate the Mouse TSHr in Vitro

A, FACS with the four antibodies on MT3 cell line expressing the mouse TSHr. Cells were stained with each antibody and analyzed as described above. B, Concentration action curve of IgGs of IRI-SAb2 and -3 on intracellular cAMP accumulation measured on MT3 cells in normal isotonic salt medium. A concentration action curve was also performed with bTSH (data not shown), and the plateau corresponding to the maximum stimulation of cAMP production achieved with 100 mIU/ml bTSH is shown. Results are expressed in picomoles of cAMP/ml. All measurements were performed in duplicate.

 


View larger version (31K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 4. Localization of IRI-SAb2, IRI-SAb3, and 1H7 Epitopes

A, Schematic representations of TSHr. The seven-transmembrane helices are drawn as helical nets. Closed circles in the N-terminal portion represent the LRR portion of the ectodomain (residues 54–254) B, Schematic representations of the LRR portion of TSHr with the eight residues mutated in chimera T56. C, Schematic representation of a single structural LRR. D, Mapping of the epitopes of IRI-SAb1, -2, -3, and 1H7 with hTSHr mutant transfected in COS cells. T56 is a mutant of TSHr with eight residues mutated (see schematic representation above). T90 is a mutant of TSHr with 20 residues mutated with LHr counterparts. COS cells were transfected with wild-type or mutated TSHr, stained with mAbs, and analyzed by FACS as described in Materials and Methods.

 
IRI-SAb2, IRI-SAb3, and 1H7.
IRI-SAb2, IRI-SAb3, and 1H7 antibodies recognized the TSHr from human, mouse, rat, cat, dog, and sheep, when tested by FACS (data not shown). Chimeras between the TSHr and the LH/CG receptor pointed, for all three mAbs, to epitopes located in the first 281 residues of the ectodomain (data not shown). We then tested the ability of these antibodies to interact with residues of the inner surface of the horseshoe region of the TSHr. This surface (Fig. 4Go, A and B) has been predicted to be composed of nine units of seven residues, X1-X2-L-X3-L-X-4-X5. The side chains of the X residues are predicted to face the solvent, being available for interaction with the hormones, or antibodies (Fig. 4CGo). This model has been validated by demonstrating that exchanging specific X residues between the GPHRs resulted in swapping of recognition specificity in the corresponding chimeras (6). The three mAbs did not recognize the T90 chimera, harboring 20 substitutions of X residues (Fig. 4DGo), nor the T56 chimera, where X residues were mutated at eight positions (three residues in the LRR1, two residues in LRR2 and three residues in LRR7) (Fig. 4Go, B and D). We then tested a total of 35 mutants in which X residues were mutated individually, or in combination. The actual FACS data leading to delineation of the epitopes are described in supplemental Table 1Go (published as supplemental data on The Endocrine Society’s Journals Online web site at http://mend.endojournals.org), and the results are compiled in Fig. 5Go.



View larger version (52K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 5. Cartography of IRI-SAb2, IRI-SAb3, and 1H7 Epitope

ß-Strands of the nine LRRs of the TSHr ectodomain. Based on the model illustrated in Fig. 4CGo, only the X residues, putatively facing the hormone, and the antibodies are represented. Numbering starts from the first amino acid of the signal peptide of the TSHr. Residues implicated in the recognition of TSHr by the antibody were identified individually (in black box), or in combination (surrounded by a dotted box) (see supplemental Table 1Go for actual FACS values). A, Cartography of the IRI-SAb2 epitope. B, Cartography of the IRI-SAb3 epitope. C, Cartography of the 1H7 epitope.

 
The epitope of IRI-SAb2 included a series of nine X residues belonging to LRR1, -2, and -3 (Fig. 5AGo). Interestingly, except for I60 (X4 of LRR1), none of these residues was able to affect recognition of the constructs by the antibody, when mutated in isolation. In contrast, the three triple mutants (X2,3,4 of LRR1, X2,3,5 of LRR2, and X2,3,4 of LRR3) were no longer recognized by IRI-SAb2. Mutations en bloc of residues X1,2,3,4,5 of LRR4 to -6, did not impair the interaction of IRI-SAb2 with the TSHr.

The epitope of IRI-SAb3 included X residues belonging to LRR1–LRR6 (Fig. 5BGo). Contrary to the situation with IRI-SAb2, many residues completely abolished recognition of TSHr by IRI-SAb3 when mutated individually: I60 and E61 (X4 and X5 of LRR1), Y82 and I85 (X3 and X5 of LRR2), E107 and R109 (X3 and X4 of LRR3), E157 (X3 of LRR5), and K183 (X3 of LRR6). Only in LRR4 was the simultaneous substitution of residues X2,3,4 necessary to impair the interaction. Mutations of all X1,2,3,4,5 residues of LRR7, -8, and -9 did not impair the interaction of IRI-SAb3 with the TSHr.

The epitope of mAb 1H7 included X residues belonging to LRR1–LRR4 (Fig. 5CGo). Residues that fully impaired the recognition of TSHr when mutated individually were: T56 and K58 (X2 and X3 of LRR1), R80 and Y82 (X2 and X3 of LRR2), and R109 (X4 of LRR3). Similar to the observation with IRI-SAb3, simultaneous mutation of X2,3,4 residues of LRR4 was necessary to impair the interaction of 1H7 with TSHr. Mutations, in combination, of residues X1,2,3,4,5 of LRR5 and LLR6 were without effect.

Sequence and Structure Analysis of the Variable Regions of IRI-SAb2, IRI-SAb3, and 1H7
The nucleotide sequences of the V genes coding for the different mAbs and the corresponding amino acid sequences were determined. IRI-SAb2 and -3 used the same germline VH and VL gene (Fig. 6Go). Supplemental Table 2 published as supplemental data on The Endocrine Society’s Journals Online web site at http://mend.endojournals.org lists gene family assignments. A high-sequence identity is observed between the heavy (93%) and the light chains (91%) of IRI-SAb2 and IRI-SAb3, respectively. mAb 1H7 shared 72–75% identities with IRI-SAB2 or IRI-SAb3 for its heavy chain and 50–52% for the light chain (Fig. 6Go). A replacement/silent (R/S) mutation ratio > 2.9 within the heavy-chain CDRs (complementarity determining regions) reflected the positive selective pressure of the antigen on these antibodies (22).



View larger version (51K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 6. Amino Acid Sequences of Variable Regions of IRI-SAb2, IRI-SAb3, and 1H7

Sequence alignments of variable regions from heavy (VH) and light (VL) chains. CDR regions are boxed. Amino acids are numbered according to the Kabat nomenclature (23 ). Black boxes, The four residues different between IRI-SAb2 and IRI-SAb3 CDRs. A denotes GenBank accession number.

 
IRI-SAb2 and IRI-SAb3 differ only in four CDR residues (Fig. 6Go). Canonical classes are listed in Supplemental Table 3 published as supplemental data on The Endocrine Society’s Journals Online web site at http://mend.endojournals.org. According to Kabat numbering (23), IRI-SAb2 has N53 and R93 in the light chain where IRI-SAb3 has S53 and S93. Two residues in the heavy chain are also variable: F53 and T57 for IRI-SAb2 and Y53 and A57 for IRI-SAb3 (Fig. 6Go). The residues at position 53 and 93 in the light chain and at position 53 in the heavy chain are located on the surface of the molecule, in the predicted antigen binding region (supplemental Fig. 2Go published as supplemental data on The Endocrine Society’s Journals Online web site at http://mend.endojournals.org.). They could interact with residues from the TSHr and account for the slightly different abilities of IRI-SAb2 and -3 to stimulate the TSHr.

Biological Activity of IRI-SAb2 and IRI-SAb3 in Mice, ex Vivo and in Vivo
The ability of the two antibodies to interact with the mouse TSHr was tested, using a Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cell line (MT3) expressing the murine receptor (our unpublished data). Whereas IRI-SAb1 did not bind to the mouse TSHr by FACS (see above), IRI-SAb2, IRI-SAb3, and 1H7 recognized equally well the human and murine receptors (Fig. 7AGo). These results are in agreement with the data concerning the epitopes. The residues found to be important in the interaction of the three antibodies are 100% conserved between the human and murine TSHr.

IRI-SAb2 and IRI-SAb3 were then tested for their ability to stimulate the mouse TSHr in normal-salt medium (Fig. 7BGo). A concentration-dependent increase in cAMP production was observed, with a maximum stimulation of 22-fold the basal cAMP values for the two antibodies. This represented 134% of the maximum stimulation generated in the same experiment by a saturating concentration of bTSH. EC50 values were 1.3 ± 0.66 nM for IRI-SAb2 and 3.8 ± 0.48 nM for IRI-SAb3.

The in vivo stimulating activity of IRI-SAb2 and IRI-SAb3 was then assessed by iv injection of IgGs in mice. PBS, mAb BA8 (devoid of biological activity), and mAb 1H7 served as controls. Two days after injection (Fig. 8AGo), the total T4 levels were almost double in mice injected with IRI-SAb2 or IRI-SAb3, when compared with the control groups. Of the 10 mice injected with IRI-SAb2 or IRI-SAb3, nine presented a very low TSH level, below 10 mIU/liter. In contrast, TSH levels in the control groups were very heterogeneous: only two mice of the 15 controls showed TSH values below 10 mIU/liter (Fig. 8CGo). In all the mice injected with IRI-SAb2 or IRI-SAb3, T4 levels remained stably high 4 d post injection (Fig. 8BGo) and TSH values remained below 10 mIU/liter (Fig. 8DGo). We subsequently investigated the short- and long-time responses to TSAb, in a group of mice injected with IRI-SAb2 (Fig. 8EGo). T4 levels were already elevated (8.18 ± 0.83 µg/dl) 8 h post injection. These levels decreased slightly at 24 h and had almost normalized 7 d post injection, which is consistent with the reported serum half-life of mouse IgG2a (6–8 d) (24).



View larger version (21K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 8. Total T4 and TSH in Sera from Female Mice Treated with 100 µg Purified IRI-SAb2 and IRI-SAb3

Groups treated with PBS, mAb BA8, or mAb 1H7 were used as control. T4 (µg/dl) and TSH (mIU/liter) were measured, respectively, 48 h (A and C) and 4 d (B and D) post injection. Distribution of values is shown as dot plots, with median (line). **, P < 0.01 (by Mann-Whitney rank sum analysis). E, T4 values in mice treated with IRI-SAb2 or PBS (control) 8 h, 24 h, and 7 d post injection. Due to repeated bleeding, a minimal amount of serum was harvested and the TSH values were not evaluated in this experiment.

 
In these hyperthyroid mice, thyroid morphology (Fig. 9BGo) was considerably modified as compared with control mice (Fig. 9AGo). The follicular epithelial layers were often made of hypertrophic cells, with irregular apical poles protruding into the colloid (Fig. 9BGo). Numerous necrotic thyrocytes were also detected, shedded in some follicular lumina (Fig. 9Go, B and C), which is considered sign of a toxic effect of the acute hyperstimulation. Dying thyrocytes, with picnotic eccentric nuclei, were also observed in some follicles (Fig. 9DGo). An extended infiltrate throughout the gland was observed (Fig. 9CGo). These cells, in the interstitium, were immunohistochemically typed as CD45+ immune cells (Fig. 9EGo), and numerous Mac-1+ macrophages were observed between the thyrocytes and inside the colloid (Fig. 9FGo).



View larger version (122K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 9. Frozen Sections of Thyroid Glands from Mice Treated with Stimulating mAbs

A, Section of the thyroid from a control mouse (magnification, x20). B and C, Sections of the thyroids from mice treated with IRI-SAb2. B, Some follicles have a thickened irregular epithelial layer (arrows) (magnification, x20). Numerous released necrotic thyrocytes were also detected in some follicular lumina. C, Presence of an extended infiltrate throughout the gland (magnification, x20). D, Dying thyrocytes with picnotic eccentric nucleus were observed in the epithelium of some follicles (arrow) (magnification, x80). E, Cells in the interstitium and some cells in the lumen (arrow) were typed as CD45+ immune cells (magnification, x40). F, Numerous Mac-1 positive macrophages were observed between the thyrocytes and inside the colloid (magnification, x20).

 

   DISCUSSION
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
 REFERENCES
 
With one notable exception (18), mAbs with convincing thyroid-stimulating activity have been generated only from murine models of Graves’ disease (15, 16, 17). This implies that success has been obtained from animals in which tolerance to self has been overruled for the TSHr, which, in turn, may explain the low yield of these experiments. Because functional screening of mAbs from hyperthyroid mice is usually made with transfected cells expressing the human receptor, the mAbs identified are expected to recognize epitopes common to mouse and man. Among a series of stimulating and blocking mAbs isolated from mice with experimental Graves’ disease, three monoclonal with TSAb activity (IRI-SAb1, IRI-SAb2, and IRI-Sab3) and one with blocking activity (Ref.15 and present study) have been studied in detail.

IRI-SAb2 Is a Full Agonist of the hTSHr
Although considered to act in the low nanomolar range (19, 25, 26, 27), autoantibodies with TSAb activity display a wide range of efficacy in currently used cAMP-based assays. The observation that performing TSAb assays in low-salt media caused significant increase in sensitivity led research workers to adopt low-salt conditions to run standard clinical TSAb tests (28). Similarly, the first murine mAbs with TSAb activity were mainly tested in low-salt media (17), and there was no indication that they functioned as full or partial agonists of the hTSHr. A hamster mAb was clearly a partial agonist (16). IRI-SAb2 and, to a lesser extent, IRI-SAb3 are exceptions. When tested under normal salt conditions, their ability to stimulate cAMP accumulation in hTSHr-expressing CHO cells amounts to 98% and 80% of the maximal stimulation achieved by bTSH, which matches the strongest TSAbs found in rare patients. Coupled with this high efficacy, their potency approaches that of TSH (EC50 2.75 ± 0.25 nM and 16.5 ± 3.5 nM vs. 1 nM for bTSH). Binding affinity to the hTSHr of both IRI-SAb2 and IRI-SAb3 match that of autoantibodies purified from Graves’ patients (19) (see supplemental Fig. 1Go). In comparison, the previously characterized IRI-SAb1 (Fig. 1AGo) and mAb MS-1 (16) are weak, partial agonists, which suggest that they do not unmask well the trigger epitope (see below). Also, contrary to MS-1, which displays a bell-shaped concentration-action curve [interpreted by the authors as indication for down-regulation of the TSHr (16)], IRI-SAb2 and IRI-SAb3 show classical sigmoid concentration-action curves in semilog plots (Fig. 1AGo). A human mAb described recently, (18) approaches the functional characteristics of IRI-SAb2. However, it remains to be demonstrated whether it behaves as a full agonist of the hTSHr in normal-salt medium.

Stimulating Activity of IRI-SAb2 and IRI-SAb3 Is Preserved in Fab Fragments
Dimerization/oligomerization of GPCRs is a subject of intense current interest (29). Despite some contradictory indications (Ref.29 for review and Ref.30), however, there is no strong evidence that modification of the di/oligomerization status of GPCRs or GPHRs is involved in the activation process, per se (29). Our results with Fab fragments of IRI-SAb2 and IRI-SAb3 confirm earlier results with TSAbs from patients (1, 31) and previously described Fab generated from TSHr-stimulating mAbs (17, 18). Monovalent antibodies are as active as intact IgGs, which rules out that activation by antibodies would be secondary to forced dimerization (29) or aggregation of the receptors.

Molecular Delineation of Conformational Epitopes of TSAbs: There Is More Than One Way to Stimulate the TSHr
From the first studies, when the cloned TSHr cDNA became available, it was concluded that the epitopes of TSAb from Graves’ patients were conformational (1, 32, 33, 34). This notion is in agreement with the results obtained with the present, as well as previously described mAbs with stimulating activity (16, 17). IRI-SAb1 bound only to the hTSHr, and its epitope was localized in the N-terminal part of the ectodomain. This epitope involves a glutamine residue (Q45), located in the first cysteine cluster of the ectodomain, immediately upstream of the LRR portion. Q45 belongs to a segment of the receptor predicted to be highly conformational (25), and particularly well exposed to the interaction with TSAb in constructs in which the serpentine portion of the TSHr has been replaced by a glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchor (35). The epitope of IRI-SAb1 contains a second glutamine residue (Q91), located on the convex portion of the horseshoe structure of the ectodomain, in the {alpha}-helix of the second LRR (see Fig. 3Go). This face of the horseshoe is not expected to make direct contact with TSH (6), which is consistent with the absence of TSH-displacing activity of IRI-SAb1 (Fig. 1CGo). This raises the possibility that some autoantibodies with no TBII activity could act as TSAbs. Although TBII-negative patients with Graves’ disease have been described (36), they are rare, in agreement with the notion that the majority of TSAbs do compete with TSH for binding to the TSHr (21). Consistent with this view, IRI-SAb1 is not displaced by the vast majority of autoantibodies from Graves’ patients (Fig. 2AGo).

Contrary to IRI-SAb1, mAbs IRI-SAb2 and IRI-SAb3 are not specific to the hTSHr: they recognize the TSHr from several species, including mouse in which they were generated (Fig. 3Go). Whereas their epitopes were also localized in the N-terminal part of the receptor, contrary to IRI-SAb1, they involve several residues belonging to the ß-strands of LRRs. As such, their epitopes map in the concave face of the amino-terminal portion of the horseshoe structure (Figs. 4Go and 5Go), a region demonstrated as being directly implicated in specific interactions with TSH (6). A detailed comparison, at the single amino acid level, of the epitopes of IRI-SAb2 and IRI-SAb3 demonstrates extensive overlap involving the ß-sheets of LRR1, -2, and -3 (Fig. 5Go). Interestingly, the epitope of IRI-SAb3 extends further to residues of LRR4, -5, and -6 (Fig. 5Go). Considering the weaker efficacy of IRI-SAb3 when compared with IRI-SAb2, this suggests that agonistic activity may depend more on the nature of the interacting residues than on the extent of the interaction surface. Although interpretation of such overlap must be taken with some caution (the amino acid substitutions from which they are inferred may cause long-range structural perturbations), these data delineate the ß-sheets of LRR1–LRR3 as part of the trigger region of TSHr ectodomain. This trigger region could be located entirely in the LRR domain itself or it could encompass part of the cysteine-N terminus portion of the receptor, as supported by the partial activation obtained with IRI-SAB 1 (15) and as already suggested by a previous report (37).

In parallel to this observation, the very limited number of amino acid substitutions in the Fv regions of IRI-SAb2 and IRI-SAb3 predicted to interact with the epitopes (three residues: two in the light chains and one in the heavy chains) (Fig. 6Go; see also supplemental data, Fig. 2Go) indicate that the two mAbs originate from a common gene rearrangement. It demonstrates that the difference between partial or full agonistic activity of the antibodies depends on very subtle structural differences. In turn, these observations open the way to the identification of activating interactions of the trigger region, by reciprocal site-directed mutagenesis of the recombinant antibodies and ectodomain constructs.

Epitopes of Strong Stimulating and Blocking mAbs Do Overlap with Each Other and with Determinants of TSH Binding
The epitope of the strong blocking mAb, 1H7, overlaps strikingly with those of IRI-SAb2 and IRI-SAb3. It shares five residues with each of them (T56, K58, R80, Y82, R109 with IRI-SAb2; Y82, R109, F130, G132, F134 with IRI-SAb3). Again, interpretation of such overlap at the single amino acid level must be taken with caution (see above). Nevertheless, this observation is a strong indication that the difference between stimulating and blocking antibodies may involve very similar and nearby epitopes. Functional studies involving mutated constructs of both the ectodomain and recombinant mAbs, endowed or not with stimulating activity, should help in delineating residues implicated in the activation trigger.

Not surprisingly, the blocking mAb (1H7) and the stimulating mAbs (IRI-SAb2 and IRI-SAb3) are displaced in a similar way from the receptor by autoantibodies of Graves’ patients (Fig. 2DGo). This observation is in complete agreement with recent results showing that purified autoantibodies from patients with pure blocking activity (i.e. displaying no TSAb activity) cannot be distinguished from purified TSAb for their ability to be displaced from the TSHr by autoantibodies from classical Graves’ patients (19). Together, these observations challenge the notion that activating and blocking antibodies would recognize epitopes located in the amino-terminal and carboxy-terminal portions of the ectodomain, respectively (Ref.38 and reviewed in Ref.34).

IRI-SAb2 and -3 Are Effective Stimulators of Murine TSHr ex Vivo and in Vivo
Their isolation from a mouse displaying signs of thyrotoxicosis suggested strongly that IRI-SAb2 and IRI-SAb3 were responsible for (or contributed to) the hyperthyroid state. As stated above, this implies that tolerance to self has been overruled for the TSHr and that some antibodies in this animal must be able to recognize and activate the murine TSHr. Both IRI-SAb2 and IRI-SAb3 present these characteristics when tested ex vivo on CHO cells expressing the mouse TSHr (Fig. 7Go). Unexpectedly, both IRI-SAb2 and IRI-SAb3 were stronger agonists than bTSH in this assay system (Fig. 7Go). It is conceivable that they would stabilize more efficiently the active conformation of the ectodomain than bTSH, the situation with murine TSH having not been explored. Also, the difference in efficacy of the two mAbs observed in stimulation of the hTSHr is not observed with the mouse receptor (compare Fig. 1Go with Fig. 7Go).

In agreement with these observations, mice injected iv with IRI-SAb2 and IRI-SAb3 displayed biological signs of hyperthyroidism (Fig. 8Go). The kinetics of the change in plasma total T4 after IRI-SAB2 injection were grossly compatible with the known half-lives of the mouse IgG2a isotype (39), with no sign of acute desensitization (Fig. 8EGo), which is reminiscent of the situation in Graves’ disease. The histology of the glands, 4 d after injection of either IRI-SAb2 or IRI-SAb3, displays the expected signs of thyrocyte hyperstimulation. Unexpectedly, however, it also revealed acute signs of inflammation and toxicity, with numerous infiltrating macrophages and dying cells desquamated in the colloid spaces. This picture could be interpreted as the consequence of an acute stimulation of the TSHr, inducing overproduction of H2O2 at the apical membrane, followed by an inflammatory process (40, 41). The ability of a purely humoral stimulation by TSAbs to cause an inflammatory reaction in the glands of nonimmunized mice is interesting in the context of the pathophysiology of Graves’ disease. According to common knowledge, the inflammatory signs of thyroid tissue observed in Graves’ disease (42) are the consequence of an ongoing autoimmune reaction, maintained by local antigens. Our results suggest that overstimulation (triggered by Igs) per se may contribute importantly to the inflammatory picture. Future studies, in which IRI-SAb2 and IRI-SAb3 will be administered chronically to naive mice, will show whether overstimulation of the glands may, by itself, lead to an autoimmune reaction with generation of antithyroglobulin and/or antithyroperoxidase autoantibodies.

Perspectives
As already noted, the mAbs described in the present study constitute promising tools with which to probe the molecular mechanisms implicated in the activation of the TSHr.

Variable regions of these mAbs can be cloned and, in contrast with TSH, easily produced as recombinant material. Both the CDR regions of the antibodies and the LRR portion of the receptor can be modified by site-directed mutagenesis and tested in functional assays. This should open the way to the identification of interacting residues in the two partners which, in turn, may provide hints about the conformational changes associated with the activation mechanisms.

From a clinical point of view, mAbs with biological activity are increasingly used in various fields of medicine (43). With their high potency and efficacy, their long half-life, and expected lower production cost, IRI-SAb2 and IRI-SAb3 (or humanized derivatives thereof) may be seen as an interesting alternative to recombinant TSH for various in vivo protocols in man. These include stimulation of thyroid remnants or metastasis, in patients with differentiated thyroid cancer before measurement of serum thyroglobulin and whole-body scan with 131I (44) or administration of therapeutic doses of 131I. In addition, their high affinity for binding to the hTSHr may qualify IRI-SAb2 and IRI-SAb3 as tracers with application in the imaging of non-iodine-uptaking metastases of less differentiated thyroid cancers.


   MATERIALS AND METHODS
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
REFERENCES
 
Reagents
The 3G4 (45) and BA8 (46) are mAbs against TSHr without any biological activity and were described elsewhere. mAb IRI-SAb1 is a monoclonal antibody against TSHr with partial agonist activity and was also partially characterized previously (15). mAb 1H7 is an antibody competing with TSH binding but without stimulating activity (our unpublished results). bTSH was purchased from Sigma Chemical Co. (St. Louis, MO). All primers used for PCR, cloning, or sequencing were synthesized by Eurogentec (Seraing, Belgium), and sequences are available upon request.

Animals Used, Sampling, and Hybridomas Generation
Female NMRI mice 6 wk of age [Ico:NMRI (IOPS:Han)] were immunized with cDNA coding for the hTSHr as described previously (12). Blood samples were obtained 8 wk after the initial immunization. For all determinations, sera were tested individually. Mice were handled and housed in accordance with procedures approved by the local committee for animal well-being. Mouse 42, scoring positive for the presence in serum of antibodies stimulating the hTSHr, was selected, and fusion of spleen cells with myeloma NS1/0 was performed as previously described (15, 46). Clones (1200) were expanded in liquid medium after selection in methyl-cellulose HAT medium (ClonCell-HY selective medium; STEMCELL Technologies, Inc., Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada).

Characterization of Antibodies in the Serum of Mouse Selected for Hybridoma Production
Flow Cytometry.
FACS analysis was performed as previously described (46) with 2 µl of serum in 100 µl of PBS 1% BSA on CHO cells expressing the hTSHr [JP19 (47)]. Results are expressed in AFUs.

Measurement of TSAb.
TSAb activity was measured using 200,000 CHO cells expressing the hTSHr [JP26 (47)] per well in a 24-well plate. Culture medium was removed 48 h after seeding and replaced by Krebs-Ringer-HEPES buffer for 30 min. Thereafter, cells were incubated for 60 min in 200 µl fresh Krebs-Ringer-HEPES buffer supplemented with the phosphodiesterase inhibitor Rolipram (25 µM) (Laboratoire Logeais, Paris, France) and containing 10 µl of serum. The medium was discarded and replaced with 0.1 M HCl and the extracts were dried under vacuum, resuspended in water, and diluted appropriately for cAMP measurements. Duplicate samples were assayed in all experiments; results are expressed as picomoles of cAMP/ml.

Screening for mAbs with TSAb or TSH Binding Inhibiting Ig (TBII) Activity
Supernatants were collected, and the presence of antibodies against hTSHr was evaluated using three assays: 1) FACS on JP19 cells with 10 µl supernatant (see above); 2) competition for [125I]TSH binding was performed with DYNOtest TRAK-coated tubes (B.R.A.H.M.S. Diagnostica, Berlin, Germany) (21) and with 50 µl supernatant; and 3) stimulation of cAMP production using JP26 CHO cells (see above) with 10 µl supernatant. Hybridomas scoring positive in the three tests were cloned and expanded, and Ig Isotype of mAb was determined (IsoStrip; Roche, Brussels, Belgium).

Characterization of Selected mAbs
TSAb and TBII Activities.
Selected mAbs and Fabs (generated after papain digestion) were purified by Sepharose-protein A affinity chromatography (ImmunoPure Fab preparation Kit; Pierce, Perbio Science, Belgium) and tested for their ability to stimulate cAMP production using JP26 CHO cells in normal isotonic medium (see above). For TBII activity determination, different amounts of antibodies were added in 250 µl buffer A (20 mM HEPES-NaOH, pH 7.5, 50 mM NaCl, 1% BSA, 10% glycerol, 2 mg/ml mouse IgG) to hTSHr-coated tubes. After 1 h incubation at room temperature, 50 µl [125I]TSH (B.R.A.H.M.S. Diagnostica) in the same buffer were added. The tubes were incubated for 2 h at room temperature, washed four times with 2 ml washing buffer [8 mM Tris-HCl, 60 mM NaCl, 0.02% Tween-20 (pH 7.5)], and bound radioactivity was counted.

Kd Determination.
Five nanograms (~200,000 RLUs) of acridinium ester-labeled mAb (20) and different amounts of unlabeled antibodies were added in 0.3 ml of buffer A to TSHr-coated tubes. Tubes were incubated for 24 h at room temperature and washed four times with 2 ml washing buffer, and RLUs were measured in a luminometer.

Competition between mAbs and Autoantibodies on hTSHr-Coated Tubes.
Buffer (150 µl) (100 mM HEPES-KOH, pH 7.5; 20 mM EDTA; 0.5 mM N-ethyl-maleimide; 1% BSA; 0.5% Triton X100; 30 µg/ml antihuman TSH antibody; 2 mg/ml mouse IgGs) and 100 µl of patients’ sera or standards were added to TSHr-coated tubes. After 2 h incubation, 50 µl PBS containing 5 ng labeled antibody were added as a tracer. Tubes were incubated overnight at 4 C and washed four times with 2 ml washing buffer, and bound RLUs were measured in a luminometer. Results were expressed as inhibition index (InI) calculated as: InI (%) = 100 – 100 x (count rate for the test serum/count rate for the standard zero sera). Graves’ disease sera were obtained from blood donors recruited for the development of in vitro diagnostics, which was approved by a national ethical committee. Sera from patients with autoimmune thyroid disease, who were clinically hypothyroid but contained high levels of TBII, were a kind gift from Dr. Daphne Khoo (Singapore General Hospital). Written consent was given by all blood donors.

Data Analysis.
Concentration-action curves, saturation curves, and Scatchard and statistical analyses (by nonparametric Mann-Whitney rank sum test) were fitted and computed with the Prism program (GraphPad Software, Inc., San Diego, CA).

In Vivo Assay with Stimulating mAbs
Purified mAbs (100 µg) (IRI-SAB2, IRI-SAB3, 1H7, BA8) in PBS were injected in the tail vein of 8-wk-old female BALB/c mice. Blood samples were obtained at various times post injection. PBS and mAb BA8 were used as controls.

Total T4 and TSH Assays
Total T4 was measured with a commercial kit (T4 mAb, ICN Pharmaceuticals, Plainview, NY). TSH was measured as previously described (48).

Light Microscopy and Immunohistochemistry
Mice were exsanguinated by cardiac puncture under Nembutal anesthesia 4 d post injection with purified mAbs. The thyroid glands were removed and processed for light microscopy and immunohistochemistry. Frozen sections were subjected to immunoperoxidase staining using mAbs specific for CDR5RA-positive immune cells and Mac-1 positive macrophages cells, as previously described (49).

Variable Region Gene Analysis
Total RNA was isolated with the RNeasy Mini Kit (QIAGEN Inc., Valencia, CA). After first-strand cDNA synthesis with random hexamers, the heavy and light chain FV regions were amplified using degenerate primers described by Kettleborough et al. (50) and sequenced. The sequences were compared with available sequences of mouse Ig genes using IMGT/V-QUEST (http://imgt.cines.fr/textes/vquest/). The R/S mutation ratio was calculated for the framework and CDR regions of the heavy and light chain. A CDR R/S ratio greater than 2.9 (calculated for somatic mutations occurring randomly in a gene encoding a protein the structure of which need not be preserved) is indicative of antigen-driven maturation of the antibodies, whereas a lower framework R/S mutation ratio (<2.9) reflects the negative pressure of structural components that need to be conserved (22).


   ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
 
We thank V. Janssens and W. Minich for expert technical assistance.


   FOOTNOTES
 
This work was supported by the Belgian program on Interuniversity Poles of Attraction initiated by the Belgian State, Prime Minister’s Office, Science Policy Programming, and the LifeSciHealth program of the European Community (Grant LSHB-CT-2003-503337). Additional grants came from FRSM, Fond national pour la recherché scientifique (FNRS), Biovallée, Association Recherche Biomédicale et Diagnostic, Comision Interministerial de Ciencia y Tecnologia (SAF2002-01509), and the Improving Human Potential of the European Community (HPRI-CT-1999-00071). This work was also supported in part by National Institutes of Health Grant DK 15070 (to S.R.). S.C. is Chercheur Qualifié at the FNRS.

Abbreviations: AFU, Arbitrary fluorescence unit; CDR, complementarity determining region; CHO, Chinese hamster ovary; FACS, fluorescence-activated cell sorting; GPCR, G protein-coupled receptor; GPHR, glycoprotein hormone receptor; LRR, leucine-rich repeat; mAB, monoclonal antibody; R/S ratio, replacement silent ratio; TBAb, TSH-blocking antibody; TBII, TSH-binding inhibiting Ig; TSAb, thyroid-stimulating antibody; TSHr, TSH receptor.

Received for publication June 7, 2004. Accepted for publication August 10, 2004.


   REFERENCES
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 REFERENCES
 

  1. Rapoport B, Chazenbalk GD, Jaume JC, McLachlan SM 1998 The thyrotropin (TSH) receptor: interaction with TSH and autoantibodies. Endocr Rev 19:673–716[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  2. Dias JA, Van Roey P 2001 Structural biology of human follitropin and its receptor. Arch Med Res 32:510–519[CrossRef][Medline]
  3. Ascoli M, Fanelli F, Segaloff DL 2002 The lutropin/choriogonadotropin receptor, a 2002 perspective. Endocr Rev 23:141–174[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  4. Szkudlinski MW, Fremont V, Ronin C, Weintraub BD 2002 Thyroid-stimulating hormone and thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor structure-function relationships. Physiol Rev 82:473–502[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  5. Braun T, Schofield PR, Sprengel R 1991 Amino-terminal leucine-rich repeats in gonadotropin receptors determine hormone selectivity. EMBO J 10:1885–1890[Medline]
  6. Smits G, Campillo M, Govaerts C, Janssens V, Richter C, Vassart G, Pardo L, Costagliola S 2003 Glycoprotein hormone receptors: determinants in leucine-rich repeats responsible for ligand specificity. EMBO J 22:2692–2703[CrossRef][Medline]
  7. Kobe B, Deisenhofer J 1993 Crystal structure of porcine ribonuclease inhibitor, a protein with leucine-rich repeats. Nature 366:751–756[CrossRef][Medline]
  8. Kajava AV, Vassart G, Wodak SJ 1995 Modeling of the three-dimensional structure of proteins with the typical leucine-rich repeats. Structure 3:867–877[Medline]
  9. Weetman AP 2000 Graves’ disease. N Engl J Med 343:1236–1248[Free Full Text]
  10. Prabhakar BS, Bahn RS, Smith TJ 2003 Current perspective on the pathogenesis of Graves’ disease and ophthalmopathy. Endocr Rev 24:802–835[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  11. Shimojo N, Kohno Y, Yamaguchi K, Kikuoka S, Hoshioka A, Niimi H, Hirai A, Tamura Y, Saito Y, Kohn LD, Tahara K 1996 Induction of Graves-like disease in mice by immunization with fibroblasts transfected with the thyrotropin receptor and a class II molecule. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93:11074–11079[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  12. Costagliola S, Many MC, Denef JF, Pohlenz J, Refetoff S, Vassart G 2000 Genetic immunization of outbred mice with thyrotropin receptor cDNA provides a model of Graves’ disease. J Clin Invest 105:803–811[Medline]
  13. Nagayama Y, Kita-Furuyama M, Ando T, Nakao K, Mizuguchi H, Hayakawa T, Eguchi K, Niwa M 2002 A novel murine model of Graves’ hyperthyroidism with intramuscular injection of adenovirus expressing the thyrotropin receptor. J Immunol 168:2789–2794[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  14. Rao PV, Watson PF, Weetman AP, Carayanniotis G, Banga JP 2003 Contrasting activities of thyrotropin receptor antibodies in experimental models of Graves’ disease induced by injection of transfected fibroblasts or deoxyribonucleic acid vaccination. Endocrinology 144:260–266[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  15. Costagliola S, Franssen JD, Bonomi M, Urizar E, Willnich M, Bergmann A, Vassart G 2002 Generation of a mouse monoclonal TSH receptor antibody with stimulating activity. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 20:299:891–896
  16. Ando T, Latif R, Pritsker A, Moran T, Nagayama Y, Davies TF 2002 A monoclonal thyroid-stimulating antibody. J Clin Invest 110:1667–1674[CrossRef][Medline]
  17. Sanders J, Jeffreys J, Depraetere H, Richards T, Evans M, Kiddie A, Brereton K, Groenen M, Oda Y, Furmaniak J, Rees SB 2002 Thyroid-stimulating monoclonal antibodies. Thyroid 12:1043–1050[CrossRef][Medline]
  18. Sanders J, Evans M, Premawardhana KE, Depraetere H, Jeffreys J, Richards T, Furmaniak J, Rees Smith B 2003 Human monoclonal thyroid stimulating autoantibody. Lancet 362:126–128[CrossRef][Medline]
  19. Morgenthaler NG, Minich WB, Willnich M, Bogusch T, Hollidt JM, Weglohner W, Lenzner C, Bergmann A 2003 Affinity purification and diagnostic use of TSH receptor autoantibodies from human serum. Mol Cell Endocrinol 212:73–79[CrossRef][Medline]
  20. Minich WB, Lenzner C, Morgenthaler NG 2004 Antibodies to TSH-receptor in thyroid autoimmune disease interact with monoclonal antibodies whose epitopes are broadly distributed on the receptor. Clin Exp Immunol 136:129–136[CrossRef][Medline]
  21. Costagliola S, Morgenthaler NG, Hoermann R, Badenhoop K, Struck J, Freitag D, Poertl S, Weglohner W, Hollidt JM, Quadbeck B, Dumont JE, Schumm-Draeger PM, Bergmann A, Mann K, Vassart G, Usadel KH 1999 Second generation assay for thyrotropin receptor antibodies has superior diagnostic sensitivity for Graves’ disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 84:90–97[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  22. Jukes TH, King JL 1979 Evolutionary nucleotide replacements in DNA. Nature 281:605–606[CrossRef][Medline]
  23. Johnson G, Wu TT 2000 Kabat Database and its applications: 30 years after the first variability plot. Nucleic Acids Res 28:214–218[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  24. Vieira P, Rajewsky K 1986 The bulk of endogenously produced IgG2a is eliminated from the serum of adult C57BL/6 mice with a half-life of 6–8 days. Eur J Immunol 16:871–874[Medline]
  25. Chazenbalk GD, Wang Y, Guo J, Hutchison JS, Segal D, Jaume JC, McLachlan SM, Rapoport B 1999 A mouse monoclonal antibody to a thyrotropin receptor ectodomain variant provides insight into the exquisite antigenic conformational requirement, epitopes and in vivo concentration of human autoantibodies. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 84:702–710[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  26. Cornelis S, Uttenweiler-Joseph S, Panneels V, Vassart G, Costagliola S 2001 Purification and characterization of a soluble bioactive amino-terminal extracellular domain of the human thyrotropin receptor. Biochemistry 40:9860–9869[CrossRef][Medline]
  27. Jaume JC, Kakinuma A, Chazenbalk GD, Rapoport B, McLachlan SM 1997 Thyrotropin receptor autoantibodies in serum are present at much lower levels than thyroid peroxidase autoantibodies: analysis by flow cytometry. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82:500–507[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  28. Kasagi K, Hidaka A, Hatabu H, Lu C, Misaki T, Iida Y, Konishi J 1989 Mechanisms of increased sensitivity for detection of thyroid stimulating antibodies by use of hypotonic medium. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 121:216–222[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  29. Terrillon S, Bouvier M 2004 Roles of G-protein-coupled receptor dimerization. EMBO Rep 5:30–34[CrossRef][Medline]
  30. Latif R, Graves P, Davies TF 2002 Ligand-dependent inhibition of oligomerization at the human thyrotropin receptor. J Biol Chem 277:45059–45067[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  31. Rees Smith B, McLachlan SM, Furmaniak J 1988 Autoantibodies to the thyrotropin receptor. Endocr Rev 9:106–121[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  32. Libert F, Lefort A, Gerard C, Parmentier M, Perret J, Ludgate M, Dumont JE, Vassart G 1989 Cloning, sequencing and expression of the human thyrotropin (TSH) receptor: evidence for binding of autoantibodies. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 165:1250–1255[CrossRef][Medline]
  33. Nagayama Y, Kaufman KD, Seto P, Rapoport B 1989 Molecular cloning, sequence and functional expression of the cDNA for the human thyrotropin receptor. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 165:1184–1190[CrossRef][Medline]
  34. Rapoport B, McLachlan S 2000 Thyroid autoantibodies in Graves’ disease. In: Rapoport B, McLachlan S, eds. Graves’ disease pathogenesis and treatment. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers; 43–66
  35. Chazenbalk GD, Pichurin P, Chen CR, Latrofa F, Johnstone AP, McLachlan SM, Rapoport B 2002 Thyroid-stimulating autoantibodies in Graves disease preferentially recognize the free A subunit, not the thyrotropin holoreceptor. J Clin Invest 110:209–217[CrossRef][Medline]
  36. Kawai K, Tamai H, Matsubayashi S, Mukuta T, Morita T, Kubo C, Kuma K 1995 A study of untreated Graves’ patients with undetectable TSH binding inhibitor immunoglobulins and the effect of anti-thyroid drugs. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 43:551–556[Medline]
  37. Chazenbalk GD, Latrofa F, McLachlan SM, Rapoport B 2004 Thyroid stimulation does not require antibodies with identical epitopes but does involve recognition of a critical conformation at the N terminus of the thyrotropin receptor A-subunit. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89:1788–1793[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  38. Tahara K, Ban T, Minegishi T, Kohn LD 1991 Immunoglobulins from Graves’ disease patients interact with different sites on TSH receptor/LH-CG receptor chimeras than either TSH or immunoglobulins from idiopathic myxedema patients. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 179:70–77[CrossRef][Medline]
  39. Vieira P, Rajewsky K 1988 The half-lives of serum immunoglobulins in adult mice. Eur J Immunol 18:313–316[Medline]
  40. Dumont JE, Lamy F, Roger P, Maenhaut C 1992 Physiological and pathological regulation of thyroid cell proliferation and differentiation by thyrotropin and other factors. Physiol Rev 72:667–697[Free Full Text]
  41. Mutaku JF, Poma JF, Many MC, Denef JF, van Den Hove MF 2002 Cell necrosis and apoptosis are differentially regulated during goitre development and iodine-induced involution. J Endocrinol 172:375–386[Abstract]
  42. Davies TF 2000 Graves’ disease: pathogenesis. In: Braverman LE, Utiger RD, eds. Werner and Ingbar’s the thyroid: a fundamental and clinical text. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 518–530
  43. Gura T 2002 Therapeutic antibodies: magic bullets hit the target. Nature 417:584–586[CrossRef][Medline]
  44. Pacini F, Molinaro E, Castagna MG, Agate L, Elisei R, Ceccarelli C, Lippi F, Taddei D, Grasso L, Pinchera A 2003 Recombinant human thyrotropin-stimulated serum thyroglobulin combined with neck ultrasonography has the highest sensitivity in monitoring differentiated thyroid carcinoma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88:3668–3673[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  45. Costagliola S, Khoo D, Vassart G 1998 Production of bioactive amino-terminal domain of the thyrotropin receptor via insertion in the plasma membrane by a glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchor. FEBS Lett 436:427–433[CrossRef][Medline]
  46. Costagliola S, Rodien P, Many MC, Ludgate M, Vassart G 1998 Genetic immunization against the human thyrotropin receptor causes thyroiditis and allows production of monoclonal antibodies recognizing the native receptor. J Immunol 160:1458–1465[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  47. Perret J, Ludgate M, Libert F, Gerard C, Dumont JE, Vassart G, Parmentier M 1990 Stable expression of the human TSH receptor in CHO cells and characterization of differentially expressing clones. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 171:1044–1050[CrossRef][Medline]
  48. Weiss RE, Forrest D, Pohlenz J, Cua K, Curran T, Refetoff S 1997 Thyrotropin regulation by thyroid hormone in thyroid hormone receptor ß-deficient mice. Endocrinology 138:3624–3629[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  49. Costagliola S, Many MC, Stalmans Falys M, Tonacchera M, Vassart G, Ludgate M 1994 Recombinant thyrotropin receptor and the induction of autoimmune thyroid disease in BALB/c mice: a new animal model. Endocrinology 135:2150–2159[Abstract]
  50. Kettleborough CA, Saldanha J, Ansell KH, Bendig MM 1993 Optimization of primers for cloning libraries of mouse immunoglobulin genes using the polymerase chain reaction. Eur J Immunol 23:206–211[Medline]



This article has been cited by other articles:


Home page
 J Mol EndocrinolHome page
R Nunez Miguel, J Sanders, D Y Chirgadze, J Furmaniak, and B Rees Smith
Thyroid stimulating autoantibody M22 mimics TSH binding to the TSH receptor leucine rich domain: a comparative structural study of protein-protein interactions
J. Mol. Endocrinol., May 1, 2009; 42(5): 381 - 395.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.Home page
Y. Mizutori, C.-R. Chen, F. Latrofa, S. M. McLachlan, and B. Rapoport
Evidence that Shed Thyrotropin Receptor A Subunits Drive Affinity Maturation of Autoantibodies Causing Graves' Disease
J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., March 1, 2009; 94(3): 927 - 935.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 EndocrinologyHome page
J. Royer, A. Lefevre-Minisini, G. Caltabiano, T. Lacombe, Y. Malthiery, F. Savagner, L. Pardo, and P. Rodien
The Cloned Equine Thyrotropin Receptor Is Hypersensitive to Human Chorionic Gonadotropin; Identification of Three Residues in the Extracellular Domain Involved in Ligand Specificity
Endocrinology, October 1, 2008; 149(10): 5088 - 5096.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 EndocrinologyHome page
C.-R. Chen, S. M. McLachlan, and B. Rapoport
Identification of Key Amino Acid Residues in a Thyrotropin Receptor Monoclonal Antibody Epitope Provides Insight into Its Inverse Agonist and Antagonist Properties
Endocrinology, July 1, 2008; 149(7): 3427 - 3434.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Mol. Endocrinol.Home page
J. H. D. Bassett, A. J. Williams, E. Murphy, A. Boyde, P. G. T. Howell, R. Swinhoe, M. Archanco, F. Flamant, J. Samarut, S. Costagliola, et al.
A Lack of Thyroid Hormones Rather than Excess Thyrotropin Causes Abnormal Skeletal Development in Hypothyroidism
Mol. Endocrinol., February 1, 2008; 22(2): 501 - 512.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 EndocrinologyHome page
L. C. Moeller, M. Alonso, X. Liao, V. Broach, A. Dumitrescu, J. Van Sande, L. Montanelli, S. Skjei, C. Goodwin, H. Grasberger, et al.
Pituitary-Thyroid Setpoint and Thyrotropin Receptor Expression in Consomic Rats
Endocrinology, October 1, 2007; 148(10): 4727 - 4733.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 EndocrinologyHome page
C.-R. Chen, S. M. McLachlan, and B. Rapoport
Suppression of Thyrotropin Receptor Constitutive Activity by a Monoclonal Antibody with Inverse Agonist Activity
Endocrinology, May 1, 2007; 148(5): 2375 - 2382.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.Home page
N. G. Morgenthaler, S. C. Ho, and W. B. Minich
Stimulating and Blocking Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH) Receptor Autoantibodies from Patients with Graves' Disease and Autoimmune Hypothyroidism Have Very Similar Concentration, TSH Receptor Affinity, and Binding Sites
J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., March 1, 2007; 92(3): 1058 - 1065.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 J Mol EndocrinolHome page
S.-C. Ho, S.-S. Goh, I. H C Kee, P. K H Chow, C.-P. Yeo, and D. H C Khoo
Effects of genetic immunization of Swiss outbred mice with human thyroid stimulating hormone receptor cDNA plasmids harboring gain-of-function mutations
J. Mol. Endocrinol., February 1, 2007; 38(2): 277 - 288.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 EndocrinologyHome page
O. Martinez, E. Gangi, D. Mordi, S. Gupta, S. Dorevitch, M.-P. Lefranc, and B. S. Prabhakar
Diversity in the Complementarity-Determining Region 3 (CDR3) of Antibodies from Mice with Evolving Anti-Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone Receptor Antibody Responses
Endocrinology, February 1, 2007; 148(2): 752 - 761.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 J. Immunol.Home page
J. A. Gilbert, A. G. Gianoukakis, S. Salehi, J. Moorhead, P. V. Rao, M. Z. Khan, A. M. McGregor, T. J. Smith, and J. P. Banga
Monoclonal pathogenic antibodies to the thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor in Graves' disease with potent thyroid-stimulating activity but differential blocking activity activate multiple signaling pathways.
J. Immunol., April 15, 2006; 176(8): 5084 - 5092.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.Home page
J. Van Sande, D. Dequanter, P. Lothaire, C. Massart, J. E. Dumont, and C. Erneux
Thyrotropin Stimulates the Generation of Inositol 1,4,5-Trisphosphate in Human Thyroid Cells
J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., March 1, 2006; 91(3): 1099 - 1107.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Endocr. Rev.Home page
S. M. McLachlan, Y. Nagayama, and B. Rapoport
Insight into Graves' Hyperthyroidism from Animal Models
Endocr. Rev., October 1, 2005; 26(6): 800 - 832.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Supplemental Tables and Figures
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Right arrow Citation Map
Services
Right arrow Email this article to a friend
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrow Request Copyright Permission
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Costagliola, S.
Right arrow Articles by Vassart, G.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Costagliola, S.
Right arrow Articles by Vassart, G.

HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS
Endocrinology Endocrine Reviews J. Clin. End. & Metab.
Molecular Endocrinology Recent Prog. Horm. Res. All Endocrine Journals