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(Liver X Receptor-) in the Mouse Intestine: Putative Role of LXRs in Lipid Detoxification Processes
Physiologie Comparée et Endocrinologie Moléculaire (D.H.V., P.V., J.H.-B., F.C., G.V., J.-M.A.L.), Unité Mixte de Recherche, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique 6547, 63177 Aubière, France; Department of Pharmacology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute (J.J.R., C.L.C., D.J.M.), University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75390-9050; and Unité Maladies Métaboliques et Micronutriments (A.M.), Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, 63122 Saint-Genès-Champanelle, France
Address all correspondence and requests for reprints to: Jean-Marc A. Lobaccaro, Unité Mixte de Recherche, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique 6547-Université Blaise Pascal, 24 avenue des Landais, 63177 Aubière Cedex, France. E-mail: j-marc.lobaccaro{at}geem.univ-bpclermont.fr.
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ABSTRACT |
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isoform. In addition, in duodenum of wild-type mice fed a synthetic LXR agonist, we observed an LXR-dependent decrease in lipid peroxidation. Our results demonstrate that akr1b7 is a direct target of LXRs throughout the small intestine, and that LXR activation plays a protective role by decreasing the deleterious effects of lipid peroxides in duodenum. Taken together, these data suggest a new role for LXRs in lipid detoxification. |
INTRODUCTION |
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,ß-unsaturated acyl aldehyde. This product is a natural result of lipid peroxidation and cleavage that occurs in response to oxidative stress and aging (6). Hence, we hypothesized that AKR1-B7 could be one of the several enzymes involved in the detoxification of lipid peroxides in intestine.
Lipids are vital nutrients that, among their many roles, can have a major impact on gene expression. Intracellular concentrations of cholesterol and fatty acids are controlled by mechanisms involving transcriptional regulation (7). Several nuclear receptors are known to regulate lipid absorption, storage, and utilization. Liver X receptors, LXR (NR1H3) and LXRß (NR1H2) (8), belong to a subclass of nuclear receptors that form obligate heterodimers with retinoid receptors RXRs (retinoic X receptors) and are bound and activated by a class of naturally occurring oxysterols (9, 10). RXR/LXR heterodimers activate their target genes by binding to specific response elements termed LXREs (LXR response elements) that contain a hexanucleotide direct repeat separated by four nucleotides (8). During the last few years, LXRs have been shown to act as major sensors of intracellular sterol concentrations (11). Use of lxr-deficient mice has also helped to elucidate the role of LXRs in fatty acid metabolism (12, 13), insulin mediation of fatty acid and cholesterol biosynthesis (14, 15), glucose homeostasis (16), and oxysterol stimulation of epidermal differentiation (17). Consistent with this observation, the LXR-regulated genes described thus far include cholesterol 7-hydroxylase (cyp7a1) (18), the rate-limiting step in the conversion of cholesterol to bile acids, cholesterol ester transfer protein, which translocates cholesteryl esters between lipoprotein fractions (19), and several ATP-binding cassette transporters including ABCA1 (20, 21), ABCG1 (22), and ABCG5 and ABCG8 (23). The role of LXRs in the intestine has been well documented, especially in the regulation of cholesterol absorption and excretion by the ATP-binding cassette transporters (21, 23, 24, 25).
Here we show that mice fed receptor-selective agonists for LXRs and RXRs exhibit increased akr1b7 mRNA levels in the intestine. Analysis of the mouse akr1b7 promoter revealed the presence of three RXR/LXR binding sites. In vivo and in vitro experiments suggest that akr1b7 regulation is mediated predominantly by LXR. Together, these data suggest a new mechanism for regulating the expression of akr1b7 by oxysterols in the intestine and further expand the role of the LXRs in maintaining normal lipid homeostasis.
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RESULTS |
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;ß-/- mice were treated with potent LXR or RXR agonists [T0901317 compound (T1317) or LG268] for 12 h or 10 d (Fig. 1A
, left and right panels, respectively). Both agonists resulted in an increase of akr1b7 mRNA accumulation in the duodenum of wild-type mice. A lack of increase of akr1b7 mRNA accumulation by T1317 was observed in the lxr;ß-/- mice, demonstrating that this gene may be a direct target of LXRs. The RXR agonist LG268 induced an increase of akr1b7 accumulation in both wild-type and lxr;ß-/-mice, suggesting the possible role of other RXR partners in akr1b7 expression.
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). In wild-type mice fed T1317, AKR1-B7 protein was elevated 3.6-fold above untreated wild-type mice. In lxr;ß-/- mice no increase in protein levels was observed. However, the basal level of AKR1-B7 protein was higher (3.5-fold). Because duodenum exhibited the highest fold changes, Western blot analyses were performed on this intestinal segment in both lxr-/- and lxrß-/- single knock-out mice after treatment with T1317 for 12 h (Fig. 1C). Analysis showed a 2.5-fold increase in lxrß-/- mice similar to that seen in wild-type mice (3.1-fold increase), whereas no increase was seen in the lxr-/- mice suggesting that akr1b7 is regulated mainly by LXR in vivo. As observed with the lxr;ß-/- mice, an elevation of the AKR1-B7 basal level was present in the lxr-/- mice (2-fold compared with the wild type).
To further investigate the LXR-selective regulation of akr1b7, we studied the expression pattern of the two LXR isoforms in the intestine. The results showed that whereas both LXRs were expressed throughout the intestine (Fig. 1D), expression of LXR was significantly higher than that of LXRß in the proximal parts (duodenum and beginning of the jejunum) compared with the distal part (ileum). These data suggested that the gradient of expression observed for akr1b7 could be due, in part, to a similar pattern of expression for LXR, as well as other transcription factors.
Identification of Binding Sites for RXR-LXR in the Promoter of akr1b7
To identify the region responsible for the LXR-mediated regulation of akr1b7, we used progressive deletions of the promoter. CV1 cells were transfected with pCMX-mRXR and pCMX-mLXR or pCMX-mLXRß (Fig. 2A). The akr1b7 promoter construct including -510 bp to +41 bp (0.5 akr1b7-luc) was the most responsive to the natural ligands 22(R)-hydroxycholesterol [22(R)OH] and 9-cis-retinoic acid (9cRA) (13-fold with LXR and 6.2-fold with LXRß). The 0.5 akr1b7-luc reporter gene showed the same inducibility as the known (LXRE)3-tk-luc reporter gene (Fig. 2B), derived from the sequence of the mouse cyp7a1-LXRE, which has also been shown to be more inducible by LXR than LXRß (18). Note that the -249/+41 bp luciferase construct was still inducible by LXR with a 6.8-fold increase, whereas LXRß failed to transactivate the reporter gene (Fig. 2A), suggesting that specific sequences were involved for the LXR response. The response of the 0.5 akr1b7-luc reporter gene to the synthetic ligands LG268 and T1317 was in the same range as those observed with the natural ligands 22(R)OH and 9cRA (Fig. 2C). Treatment with both synthetic ligands resulted in a more than additive effect as expected. In addition, LXR was more efficient than LXRß (27.0- vs. 11.2-fold) at trans-activating the promoter, consistent with the observed effects in the single-knockout mice reported above. To examine the LXR-mediated transcriptional regulation of this construct in an intestinal cell system, transient transfections with 0.5 akr1b7-luc were performed in CaCo2/clone 7 cells. As expected, the reporter gene was similarly responsive, giving a 19.6- and 10.8-fold increase with pCMX-mLXR and pCMX-mLXRß, respectively (Fig. 2D).
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) and arbitrarily named LXRE3 (-259 to -244), LXRE1 (-236 to -221), and LXRE2 (-153 to -168). To test the ability of these LXREs to bind RXR/LXR, EMSAs were performed with nuclear extracts obtained from CaCo2/TC7 cells or livers from the four genotypes. To confirm the binding of LXR, a polyclonal antibody developed against the N-terminal domain of the protein was used. As shown in Fig. 3B, this antiserum was specific for LXR. With the nuclear extracts from the CaCo2/TC7 cells, two complexes were observed (Fig. 3C). A 20-fold excess of unlabeled abca1 LXRE (Table 1) was able to compete for the binding of both complexes, whereas a 100-fold excess of an Sp1-binding sequence did not compete with the radiolabeled probe. Furthermore, inclusion of a specific LXR antiserum eliminated only the highest migrating complex, suggesting that this band contains RXR/LXR heterodimer. The ability of the LXRE1 and LXRE2 oligos to bind the RXR/LXR heterodimer was demonstrated by using unlabeled probes to compete for binding to the radiolabeled LXRE3 probe. At 20-fold excess, both LXREs were able to compete for RXR/LXR binding. To determine the relative affinity of the three akr1b7-LXREs for LXRs, we used a labeled abca1-LXRE probe and competed with unlabeled akr1b7 LXRE1, LXRE2, and LXRE3 and a nonspecific SP1 binding sequence (Fig. 2D). LXRE1, -2, and -3 were able to compete both complexes at 20- and 50-fold excess, whereas the SP1 oligo was not. Moreover, LXRE1 seemed to be the most efficient competitor in this assay. To test the relative affinity of the akr1b7-LXREs for both LXR isoforms, we used liver nuclear extracts from wild-type, lxr-/-, lxrß-/-, or lxr;ß-/- mice. Abca1-LXRE was used as control. Figure 3E showed that no specific bands were present when liver nuclear extracts from lxr;ß-/- mice were used. In contrast, nuclear extracts from wild-type and the single-knockout mice produced specific bands that contained LXR protein complexes bound to the LXRE probes. However, no differences in the intensity of the bands representing binding to the different LXREs was observed. Thus, LXRE1, -2, and -3 seemed to bind RXR/LXRß with the same intensity as RXR/LXR. These results suggest that the specific activity of LXR on the 0.5-kb promoter of akr1b7 promoter observed in vivo and in transient transfections might involve additional specific factors.
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. Mutations of either LXRE1 (m1) or LXRE2 (m2) affected induction of the luciferase activity by LXR, but not LXRß, when compared with the wild-type reporter gene (Fig. 4). Conversely, mutation of the LXRE3 site (m3) affected both LXR and LXRß action. This suggested that the three LXREs conferred LXR responsiveness, whereas only LXRE3 seemed to be involved in akr1b7 induction by LXRß. These results were consistent with the data obtained with the -249/+41 bp construct, which contained only LXRE1 and LXRE2, and was only responsive to LXR (Fig. 2A). Lastly, the m1m2m3 mutant was no longer responsive to 22(R)OH, whereas 9cRA was still able to induce the luciferase expression, confirming the results shown above (Fig. 1A) in which akr1b7 expression continued to be responsive to RXR in the absence of both LXR and LXRß.
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-/- and lxrß-/- mice fed T1317 (Fig. 5). In duodenum a significant decrease in the levels of malondialdehyde were seen when wild-type mice were fed T1317 compared with vehicle control (P < 0.05). The same effect was observed in the lxrß-/- mice, but not in the lxr-/- mice (Fig. 5A). This finding further supports the hypothesis that LXR plays a predominant role in this process. Note that in lxr-/- mice the basal level of malondialdehyde was lower than in the wild-type mice (P < 0.05), probably due to the increased level of the basal expression of target genes such as akr1b7. Interestingly, in ileum T1317 had no effect on the malondialdehyde concentration regardless of the genotype used in the experiment (Fig. 5B). Altogether, these data suggested that LXRs may play a role in alleviating lipid peroxide accumulation in the proximal portion of the small bowel.
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DISCUSSION |
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and/or ß knockout mice demonstrated that LXR is the predominant regulator of akr1b7 in the intestine. This conclusion was supported further by the finding that the akr1b7 promoter contains three LXREs, two of which are selective for activation by LXR/RXR heterodimers. As is usually observed for target genes of permissive RXR heterodimeric partners, akr1b7 gene expression is responsive to either ligand of the heterodimer and exhibits a more than additive response when both ligands are present. As would be expected of a direct target gene, LXR ligand-dependent transcription of akr1b7 is rapid; after 12 h of treatment with synthetic ligands, expression for akr1b7 mRNA is significantly increased in duodenum, and this is followed by a strong up-regulation of AKR1-B7 protein levels (3.1-fold, Fig. 1C).
Various factors have been shown to govern akr1b7 expression including ACTH in adrenals (4) and androgens in vas deferens (1). In adrenals, AKR1-B7 is believed to be involved in the detoxification of isocaproic aldehyde, a highly toxic lipid byproduct of steroidogenesis (2). In intestine, especially in duodenum where lipid absorption is very high, our finding that akr1b7 is regulated by LXRs would be consistent with an expanded role for this enzyme in intestinal lipid detoxification. In keeping with this hypothesis, we note that akr1b7 has the same intestinal expression pattern (5) as other known LXR target genes such as abca1, abcg5, and abcg8 (21, 23). Western blot analyses have revealed a decreasing gradient of akr1b7 expression from duodenum to ileum (Fig. 1B). This expression pattern mirrors the gradient of cholesterol and lipid absorption (28) as well as the mRNA expression of LXR (Fig. 1D) along the small intestine.
Although the diet is an indispensable source of nutrient lipids, at high concentrations these lipids (especially cholesterol) become toxic to cells (7). Because of their increased exposure to high dietary concentrations of lipids, enterocytes have evolved several protective mechanisms to limit their exposure and uptake of lipids. One major class of lipid sensors that sits at the top of this protective pathway are the LXRs. For example, one way that LXRs regulate cholesterol levels is to accelerate cholesterol efflux out of the cell by transcriptional activation of genes encoding ATP-binding cassette proteins, such as ABCA1 or ABCG5/ABCG8 (21, 23). In addition to free cholesterol accumulation, lipid peroxidation represents another important source of toxic lipid byproducts in the intestine (29), and 4-HNE has been described as one such molecule (30). 4-HNE is a relatively stable, long-lived, and diffusible lipid that is generally considered to be cytotoxic (31). Several mechanisms (26, 27) have been developed to reduce 4-HNE to a less toxic compound, and among them AKR1-B7 has been shown to be effective in vitro (2). Given the importance of AKR1-B7 in other tissues, it is not surprising, therefore, that a regulatory cascade governing its expression has evolved in the intestine. In addition to the LXRs, it is of interest to note that other nuclear receptor lipid sensors may also be involved in modulating akr1b7 transcription. Indeed, we demonstrated (Fig. 1A) that RXR agonists could still induce akr1b7 expression in the absence of LXRs, suggesting that another RXR heterodimeric partner may regulate its expression as described for abca1 (21).
The intriguing finding that malondialdehyde levels in duodenum of mice fed T1317 (Fig. 5A) or 2% cholesterol (data not shown) provided in vivo evidence suggesting that LXRs are involved in protection against lipid peroxidation. The low level of peroxidation observed in the lxr-/--deficient mice (Fig. 5A), as well as in the lxr;ß-/- mice (data not shown), may be explained by the fact that in intestine of these animals there was an increase in the basal expression of the LXR target akr1b7. It has been shown that in the absence of ligands, RXR/LXR interacts with corepressors, such as nuclear receptor corepressor (32) and therefore, in the knockout mice, where this interaction is absent, the basal level of some target genes is increased. This phenomenon has previously been shown for abca1 (21). Hence, the high expression level of akr1b7, abca1, and other LXR target genes in both lxr-/- and lxr;ß-/- mice could result in greater protection against lipid peroxidation as observed in the knockout mice. This physiological role of LXRs in mice seems to be limited to the duodenum (Fig. 5B), where lipid absorption is highest.
Intestinal enterocytes have evolved an intricate nuclear receptor-mediated mechanism for protecting themselves from lipid overload (11). In the vasculature, polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) have been proposed to be involved in promoting atheromas, because they can serve as substrates for lipid peroxidation (33). PUFAs and other oxidized lipids are known to bind and activate peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs), which, in turn, increase expression of the sterol sensor, LXR. Interestingly, 4-HNE has been shown to have a synergistic effect on the PPAR
ligand-dependent activity in erythrocytes (34). Even though such effects have not yet been demonstrated in enterocytes, we hypothesize the existence of a feed-forward regulatory loop in the intestine (Fig. 6), where one of the end products of lipid peroxidation, potentially 4-HNE, may act indirectly through PPARs to induce LXR expression. Increased levels of LXR and its activation by oxysterols would, in turn, up-regulate the expression of detoxifying genes such as akr1b7, and ultimately reduce oxidative stress.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS |
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, pCMX-mLXRß, pCMX-mRXR, pCMX (37).
Animal Studies
Lxr-knockout mice (lxr-/-, lxrß-/-, and lxr;ß-/-) (18, 21) were maintained on a mixed strain background (C57BL/6:129Sv) and housed in a temperature-controlled room with 12-h light/12-h dark cycles. Mice were fed diets containing 0.02% cholesterol plus vehicle, 30 mg/kg (mpk) LG268 or 50 mpk T1317 for 12 h or 10 d; some animals have been gavaged with vehicle or 50 mpk T1317 for 12 h. After the dietary treatment, mice were anesthetized with 200 µl of avertin (0.02 mg/ml) or nembutal and exsanguinated before organ harvest. The small intestine was divided in three parts of equal lengths (duodenum, jejunum, and ileum), and the mucosa were gently scraped as previously described (21). Polyclonal mLXR antibodies were generated by immunization of rabbits with a peptide comprising the 72 N-terminal amino acids of mLXR fused to glutathione-S-transferase. Individually housed rabbits were injected sc with the recombinant protein and then reinjected 21 d later. After 2 wk, animals were anesthesized before exsanguination. After an overnight coagulation at 4 C, blood was centrifuged at 5000 rpm for 30 min, and the sera were collected, aliquoted, and stored at -80 C. Immunoprecipitation experiments (data not shown) and Western blot analyses (Fig. 3B) have demonstrated that the antibodies specifically recognize mLXR. All the animals were maintained and handled according to the recommendations of the University Ethics Committee (Université Blaise Pascal) and the Institutional Animal Care and Research Advisory Committee (University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center).
RNA Measurements
Quantitative Real-Time PCR
Total RNA was isolated using RNAStat60 (Tel-Test, Inc.), treated with DNAse I (Roche Molecular Biochemicals, Indianapolis, IN) and reverse transcribed with random hexamers using the Superscript II First Strand Synthesis System (Invitrogen, San Diego, CA). Real-time PCR was performed on an ABI Prism 7900 HT system (ABI Advanced Technologies, Inc., Columbia, MD) as previously described (23) using 25 ng of template cDNA for each reaction. The following primers were designed to span exon junctions and specifically detect akr1b7 (NM_009731) or cyclophilin (NM_011149), which was used as the internal control: Akr1b7-F, 5'-ccctcacgcatacaggagaa-3' (819–838); akr1b7-R: 5'-gccatgtcctcctcactcaa-3' (861–880); cyclophilin-F, 5'-ggagatggcacaggaggaa-3' (470–488); cyclophilin-R, 5'-gcccgtagtgcttcagctt-3' (527–545).
Northern Blot Analysis
Total RNA from four to six mice per treatment were pooled and mRNA was purified using oligo-dT cellulose columns (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech, Arlington Heights, IL). Poly(A+) RNA (5 µg) was run on a formaldehyde-denaturing agarose gel, transferred to membrane, and hybridized with 32P-labeled cDNA probes for akr1b7 or ß-actin as previously described (21, 23). Results were quantified by phosphor imager and graphed relative to ß-actin expression.
Western Blot Analysis
Tissue cellular extracts of the three intestinal portions (40 µg) were subjected to SDS-PAGE and transferred to nitrocellulose membrane (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech). Membranes were incubated overnight at 4 C with primary polyclonal antibodies raised against either AKR1-B7 (1:3,000), mLXR(1:10,000), or actin (1:2,000), followed by a 1 h incubation with a peroxidase-conjugated antirabbit IgG (Roche Diagnostics, Meylan, France) at 1:10,000. Peroxidase activity was detected with the Western Lightning System (Perkin-Elmer Life Sciences, Courtaboeuf, France).
Cell Culture and Transfection Assays
CV-1 cells were maintained at 37 C in an atmosphere of 5% CO2 DMEM containing 100 U/ml penicillin and 100 µg/ml streptomycin supplemented with 5% fetal calf serum. On d 0, CV-1 cells were seeded at 50 x 103 cells per well in 24-well plates and allowed to adhere overnight. The following day, cells were washed and transfected, in serum-free medium, with 500 ng/well of cDNA (reporter gene, 200 ng; pCMX-mLXR or -ß, 50 ng; pCMX-mRXR, 50 ng; pCMX, 200 ng) using Exgen500 (Euromedex, Mundolsheim, France). On d 2, cells were washed twice with 1x PBS, and the medium without fetal calf serum was applied with the various ligands or vehicles. 22(R)OH (10-5 M), 22(S)OH (10-5 M), 9cRA (10-6 M), T1317 (10-6 M), and LG268 (10-6 M) were added to cells as 1000x stock solutions in ethanol. After 24 h, cells were harvested for luciferase activity using commercial kits (Yelen, Ensues-la-Redonne, France). The Renilla system (Yelen) was used to normalize all the experiments, as recommended by the manufacturer.
The intestinal cell line, CaCo2-clone TC7 (38, 39) (Dr. M. Rousset, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Unité 170, Villejuif, France) was maintained at 37 C in an atmosphere of 5% CO2 in DMEM containing 100 U/ml penicillin and 100 µg/ml streptomycin supplemented with 20% fetal calf serum. Transfections were performed in the same manner as described for CV-1 cells.
Identification of the Putative LXREs
Alignment of various identified LXREs within the target genes described in mouse (ApoE-ME1, ABCA1, SREBP-1c, CYP7A1, human cholesterol ester transfer protein, and chicken ACC) allowed us to determine a consensus direct-repeat separated by four nucleotides (cDR4). The IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) consensus sequence (DGGTYAyynnVGKKCA) was searched within the 0.5-kb fragment upstream of the transcription start site. Three putative DR4 were found: LXRE1 (87.5% of identity with the cDR4), LXRE2 (93.7% of identity), and LXRE3 (87.5% of identity).
EMSA
EMSAs were performed as previously described (40). Sequences of abca1-LXRE, akr1b7-LXRE 1, -2, and -3, and SP1 are shown in Table 1. Experiments were done with nuclear extracts from CaCo2/TC7 proteins (10 µg) or from livers (5 µg) using the appropriate labeled probe. The specificity of binding by RXR-LXR was tested by competition with x100, x50, and x20 excess of various unlabeled LXREs or Sp1, or by supershift using a LXR-specific antibody. After electrophoresis, the gel was dried at 80 C for 1 h and autoradiographed with intensifying screen at -80 C overnight.
Antioxidant Status of the Various Portions of the Intestine
For lipid peroxidation, homogenates were prepared on ice using a ratio of 1 g wet tissue to 9 ml KCl (150 mmol/liter) using a Polytron homogenizer. Malondialdehyde as thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances) were measured, using a spectrophotometer (Uvikon 941 plus series, Kontron Instruments, St Quentin en Yvelines, France), in duodenum and ileum homogenates (41) after lipid peroxidation induced by FeSO4 (2 µmol/liter)-ascorbate (50 µmol/liter) for 30 min in a 37 C water bath in an oxygen-free medium, using a standard of 1,1,3,3-tetraethoxypropane as previously described (42).
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
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FOOTNOTES |
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This work was supported by grants from the Howard Hughes Medical Institute (to D.J.M.), The Robert A. Welch Foundation (to D.J.M.), and National Institutes of Health Grant U19 DK62434-02 (to D.J.M.), the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, the Université Blaise Pascal (to J.M.A.L.), the Fondation pour la Recherche Médicale (Grant INE2000-407031/1) (to J.M.A.L.), the Fondation BNP-Paribas (to J.M.A.L.), and the Institut Danone (to J.M.A.L.). D.H.V. is a recipient of a doctoral fellowship from the Ministère de l’Education Nationale, de la Recherche et de la Technologie. D.J.M. is an Investigator of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute. J.-M.A.L. is a Professor of the Université Blaise Pascal-Clermont-Ferrand 2.
Abbreviations: AKR1-B7, Aldo-keto reductase 1-B7; 9cRA, 9 cis-retinoic acid; 4-HNE, 4-hydroxynonenal; LXR, liver X receptor; LXRE, LXR response element; lxr-/-, lxr knockout mouse; lxrß-/-, lxrß knockout mouse; lxr;ß-/-, lxr and lxrß knockout mouse; mpk, mg/kg; PPAR, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor; PUFA, polyunsaturated fatty acid. RXR, retinoic X receptor; 22(R)OH, 22(R)-hydroxycholesterol; 22(S)OH, 22(S)-hydroxycholesterol; T1317, T0901317 compound.
Received for publication September 4, 2003. Accepted for publication January 14, 2004.
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