help button home button Endocrine Society Molecular Endocrinology ENDO 08 Sessions Library
HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS
Molecular Endocrinology, doi:10.1210/me.2004-0467
This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Right arrow Citation Map
Services
Right arrow Email this article to a friend
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrow NURSA Molecule Pages Link
Right arrow Request Copyright Permission
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Russcher, H.
Right arrow Articles by Koper, J. W.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Russcher, H.
Right arrow Articles by Koper, J. W.
Right arrowPubmed/NCBI databases
*Gene*GEO Profiles
*HomoloGene*UniGene
*Compound via MeSH
*Substance via MeSH
Hazardous Substances DB
*(L)-ARGININE
*DEXAMETHASONE
*L-LYSINE
Molecular Endocrinology 19 (7): 1687-1696
Copyright © 2005 by The Endocrine Society

Increased Expression of the Glucocorticoid Receptor-A Translational Isoform as a Result of the ER22/23EK Polymorphism

Henk Russcher, Elisabeth F. C. van Rossum, Frank H. de Jong, Albert O. Brinkmann, Steven W. J. Lamberts and Jan W. Koper

Department of Internal Medicine (H.R., E.F.C.v.R., F.H.d.J., S.W.J.L., J.W.K.) and Development and Reproduction (A.O.B.), Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands

Address all correspondence and requests for reprints to: Henk Russcher, Department of Internal Medicine, Room Ee 593, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Dr. Molewaterplein 40, P.O. Box 2040, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands. E-mail: h.russcher{at}erasmusmc.nl.


   ABSTRACT
TOP
 ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 REFERENCES
 
One of the most intriguing polymorphisms in the GR [glucocorticoid (GC) receptor] gene is in codons 22 and 23 [GAGAGG(GluArg) -> GAAAAG (GluLys)]. This polymorphism is associated with a reduced GC sensitivity, a better metabolic and cardiovascular health profile, and an increased survival rate. Recently, Yudt and Cidlowski reported that two different methionine codons in the GR mRNA may be used as initiation codon: AUG-1 and AUG-27, resulting in two isoforms, the GR-A and the GR-B proteins, respectively. They also showed that the GR-B protein had a stronger transactivating effect in transient transfection experiments.

In this study, we elucidated the molecular basis for the reduced GC sensitivity by investigating the influence of the ER22/23EK polymorphism on synthesis of GR-A and GR-B by expressing them independently from constructs with and without the polymorphic site. Binding studies with [3H]-dexamethasone and transactivation studies showed that, when the ER22/23EK polymorphism is present, approximately 15% more GR-A protein was expressed, whereas total GR levels (GR-A + GR-B) were not affected. These results show that the transcriptional activity in GR(ER22/23EK) carriers is decreased because more of the less transcriptionally active GR-A isoform is formed. This is probably caused by altered secondary mRNA structure.


   INTRODUCTION
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 REFERENCES
 
GLUCOCORTICOIDS (GCs) are widely used in clinical practice to treat immune diseases such as asthma, chronic intestinal inflammations, and prevention of rejection of organ transplants. It is well known that the effects of treatment vary between patients. Some patients develop side effects even on relatively low doses of therapeutically administered GCs, whereas others need a high dose to establish clinical effects without manifestation of side effects at all (1, 2). Factors like variations in systemic resorption and pharmacokinetic handling of GCs can be responsible for these differences (3). Also, an individual’s cellular sensitivity to GCs is a factor with GC receptor (GR) number, regulation of splice or translational GR variants, mutations and/or polymorphisms in the GR gene, and the availability of cofactors as important variables (4, 5, 6).

A striking example of a factor that influences cellular sensitivity is the ER22/23EK polymorphism in the GR gene (7). This polymorphism consists of two single-nucleotide mutations in codons 22 and 23 in exon 2 of the GR gene that are always linked. The first mutation is silent, changing codon 22 from GAG to GAA, both coding for glutamic acid (E). The second one, changing codon 23 from AGG to AAG, results in a conservative amino acid change from arginine (R) to lysine (K). The ER22/23EK polymorphism is associated with relative resistance to GCs, and the resulting phenotypic differences have been reviewed by van Rossum et al. (6). In summary, ER22/23EK carriers react with a smaller decrease in morning cortisol levels after a 1-mg dexamethasone suppression test and have lower total and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels, as well as lower fasting insulin concentrations and a better insulin sensitivity. Furthermore, C-reactive protein levels, which are positively related to cardiovascular damage (8), are lower in ER22/23EK carriers (6). These effects of the ER22/23EK polymorphism suggest a healthier cardiovascular and metabolic profile, which was confirmed in a follow-up study demonstrating an increased survival rate for carriers of the ER22/23EK polymorphism (9). The fact that the polymorphism is more prevalent in the older population (10) also indicates that ER22/23EK carriers have a higher chance to get older. Young adult male ER22/23EK carriers are significantly taller and have more muscle strength, whereas in young adult female carriers, waist circumference tended to be smaller (11). Furthermore, ER22/23EK carriers have a lower risk of dementia and have fewer white matter lesions in the brain, associated with small vessel disease (6, 12).

The molecular mechanism underlying the relatively decreased GC sensitivity associated with GR(ER22/23EK) is unknown. In addition to GR-splicing isoforms (e.g. GR-{alpha}, GR-ß, and GR-P) of which GR{alpha} is the functional active one (13, 14), also two translational isoforms have been described (15). The mRNA is subjected to alternative translation initiation, resulting in a longer isoform (GR-A), initiated from the first AUG codon (Met-1), and a shorter isoform, GR-B, initiated from an internal, in frame AUG codon (Met-27). Due to a weak Kozak translation initiation consensus sequence, the ribosomal scanning mechanism does not always recognize the suboptimal first translation initiation codon, and translation is subsequently initiated from methionine 27. Transient transfection studies showed that GR-B was 1.4- to 2-fold more effective as a transactivator than GR-A on GC-responsive promoters containing a single GC response element (GRE), two GREs in tandem, or the mouse mammary tumor virus promoter (15).

The ER22/23EK polymorphism is in close proximity to the Met-1 and Met-27 translation initiation start sites. In this study, we show that this polymorphism may affect the ratio in which GR-A and GR-B are synthesized, suggesting that this may cause a relative decrease in GC sensitivity.


   RESULTS
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 RESULTS
DISCUSSION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 REFERENCES
 
Expression of the Human GR Constructs
To investigate the influence of the ER22/23EK polymorphism on translation of GR mRNA to GR-A and GR-B proteins, we constructed the phGR-wild-type (wt), phGR-A-wt, phGR-B-wt, phGR-ER22/23EK, phGR-A-ER22/23EK, and phGR-B-ER22/23EK expression vectors (Table 1Go).


View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Table 1. Variant GR Expression Vectors Coding for the GR-A and/or GR-B Isoforms

 
We first investigated whether proper receptor protein is expressed from these constructs by performing in vitro transcription and translation using rabbit reticulocyte lysate and incorporation of [35S]-methionine. From the phGR-wt and phGR-ER22/23EK constructs both 94 kDa (GR-A) and 91 kDa (GR-B) proteins were expressed as shown by the double band in Fig. 1Go, lanes 2 and 5. From the phGR-A-wt and phGR-A-ER22/23EK vectors, only the 94-kDa isoform was expressed (Fig. 1Go, lanes 3 and 6), whereas from the phGR-B-wt and phGR-B-ER22/23EK vectors, only the 91-kDa isoform was produced (Fig. 1Go, lanes 1 and 4). OD scanning showed that GR-A expression from phGR-ER22/23EK and from phGR-A-ER22/23EK was approximately 10% higher than from the corresponding wt vectors; however, this difference was not significant (data not shown).



View larger version (26K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 1. In Vitro Expression of GR-A and GR-B Isoforms from Recombinant Constructs

The wt GR, the wt start site mutants, the polymorphic GR and the polymorphic start site mutants were prepared by in vitro translation using [35S]-methionine and reticulocyte lysates. Expressed proteins were electrophoresed on a 7% polyacrylamide gel and visualized by exposure to high-performance autoradiography film. The synthesis from methionine 1 (in mutant M27T) using either the wt (lane 3) or polymorphic (lane 6) construct is referred to as GR-A isoform, whereas the protein synthesized from methionine 27 (in mutant M1T) using either the wt (lane 1) or polymorphic (lane 4) construct is referred to as GR-B isoform. From the wt (lane 2) and polymorphic (lane 5) constructs, both isoforms were expressed.

 
[3H]-Dexamethasone Binding to GR Variants
To confirm that more GR-A is expressed from the vector containing the ER22/23EK polymorphism than from the wt construct, we transfected COS-1 cells, a cell system known to be devoid of endogenous GR protein (16), with the wt and polymorphic constructs individually expressing the GR-A and GR-B isoforms and incubated them with 100 nM [3H]-dexamethasone. Because the dissociation constant of the GR is about 8 nM, at this concentration, the receptors will be almost fully occupied. Therefore, the amount of specifically bound [3H]-dexamethasone (= total binding – nonspecific binding) is a measure for GR levels expressed in the cells. As shown in Fig. 2Go, the amount of total GR protein (GR-A + GR-B) expressed from the phGR-wt and phGR-ER22/23EK vectors did not differ significantly. However, from the phGR-A-ER22/23EK vector, 15 ± 6% (P < 0.05) more GR-A protein was expressed than from the phGR-A-wt vector. Levels of GR-B protein expressed from the phGR-B-wt and phGR-B-ER22/23EK did not differ (Fig. 2Go).



View larger version (22K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 2. [3H]-Dexamethasone Binding to GR-A and GR-B Isoforms Expressed from wt and Polymorphic Constructs

COS-1 cells were transfected with each of the constructs from Table 1Go expressing the indicated GR isoforms. After 24 h, 100 nM [3H]-dexamethasone without (total binding) or with (nonspecific binding) a 400-fold excess of unlabeled dexamethasone was added and incubated for 2 h at 37 C. Bars represent the amount of specifically bound [3H]-dexamethasone relative to binding to the GR(A+B) expression from the phGR-wt plasmid (100%). (means ± SEM) of four representative experiments. *, P < 0.05 by nonparametric Mann-Whitney test.

 
Transcriptional Activity
If the polymorphism influences the ratio in which the less transcriptionally active GR-A and the more transcriptionally active GR-B isoforms are formed, then also the effectiveness of the activation of gene transcription by GR might be changed. The phGR-wt and phGR-ER22/23EK constructs, which can both express the GR-A and GR-B isoforms, were transfected together with a GRE-LUC reporter gene. Increasing amounts of dexamethasone were added to create dose response curves. Figure 3Go shows that the presence of the ER22/23EK polymorphism resulted in a reduction of the maximal transcriptional activity by 14 ± 5% (P < 0.05). No significant difference in EC50 was detected.



View larger version (17K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 3. Transcriptional Activation of a GRE Containing Reporter Gene by GR wt ({square}) and GR-ER22/23EK ({bullet})

COS-1 cells were cotransfected with the GRE-LUC reporter construct and either the wt or polymorphic GR expression vector. After 5 h, cells were treated with the indicated amounts of dexamethasone for 20 h and luciferase activity was measured. Data represent means ± SEM of three representative experiments. *, P < 0.05 by ANOVA.

 
To investigate whether the ER22/23EK polymorphism selectively stimulates or represses expression of the GR-A or/and GR-B isoform, we determined the maximal transcriptional activity expressed from the AUG-1 and the AUG-27 translation initiation start codon. We transfected these four constructs together with the luciferase reporter gene into COS-1 cells, treated them with 100 nM dexamethasone and measured the luciferase activity. Figure 4Go shows that the transcriptional activity of GR-B expressed from the wt construct was 146 ± 5%, (P < 0.01) of that of GR-A, which is in line with results previously reported by Yudt and Cidlowski (15). Furthermore, the phGR-A-ER22/23EK construct showed 17 ± 5% (P < 0.05) more transcriptional activity than the phGR-A-wt construct. For the transactivating capacity of GR-B, it did not matter if it was expressed from the wt or the polymorphic plasmid.



View larger version (22K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 4. Transcriptional Activation of a GRE Containing Reporter Gene by GR-A and GR-B Isoforms Expressed from wt and Polymorphic Constructs

COS-1 cells were cotransfected with each of the constructs from Table 1Go expressing the indicated GR isoform(s). After 5 h, cells were treated with 100 nM dexamethasone for 20 h and luciferase activity was measured. Results are expressed relative to wt GR-A, expressed from phGR-A-wt (100%). Data represent means ± SEM of three representative experiments. *, P < 0.05 by ANOVA.

 
The ER22/23EK polymorphism does not affect the expression of total GR protein (Fig. 2Go) but seems to change the ratio in which GR-A and GR-B are expressed. To investigate the interaction of both translation variants, we cotransfected phGR-A and phGR-B and varied the ratio of GR-A to GR-B, while keeping total GR expression plasmid levels constant. The transfected cells were stimulated with 100 nM dexamethasone and total transcriptional activity on a GRE-LUC promoter was measured (Fig. 5Go). The results show a linear interrelationship, suggesting that the resulting activity is solely dependent on the relative contribution of each of the translation variants, without other mutual effects. The increased transcriptional activity expressed from the phGR-A-ER22/23EK construct seems to be related to higher GR-A expression levels. However, also the ER22/23EK polymorphism itself might affect transcriptional activity. Although the amino acid change in codon 23 is not within the {tau}1-region of the transactivation domain, which is variably defined as amino acid 77–262 (17) or 98–305 (18), it could cause subtle alterations in secondary structure of the protein influencing interaction with cofactors and/or DNA. This change in intrinsic activity can only be investigated if the influence of the ER22/23EK polymorphism on leaky scanning has been abolished, which was done by mutating the Kozak sequence of the AUG-1 start codon from a weak consensus sequence to a strong one. The –3 position (when ATG codon represents bases +1, +2, and +3, respectively) was mutated from a C- to a G-nucleotide (Fig. 6AGo). Expressing the phGR-wt and phGR(ER22/23EK)-ATG1-Kozak mutants in an in vitro transcription and translation assay, GR-B production was not completely blocked (Fig. 6BGo) but significantly reduced with about 70% as determined by optical densitometry (data not shown). Figure 6CGo shows that the transcriptional activity expressed from phGR-ER22/23EK of which the AUG-1 start site is embedded in a strong consensus sequence is reduced to that expressed from the wt construct. This suggests that the increased transcriptional activity from the phGR-A-ER22/23EK construct is related to higher GR-A expression levels rather than the intrinsic activity of the ER22/23EK polymorphism itself. In Fig. 6CGo, the polymorphism appears to be even more effective than the strong Kozak sequence in initiating translation of GR-A. However, to make this comparison, the effects of the polymorphism and the Kozak consensus sequence would have to be compared in the context of the M27T plasmid.



View larger version (13K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 5. Interrelationship of GR-A and GR-B on Transcriptional Activity

COS-1 cells were cotransfected with the phGR-A-wt and phGR-B-wt constructs expressing the GR-A and GR-B isoforms at the indicated ratio. After 5 h, cells were treated with 100 nM dexamethasone for 20 h and luciferase activity was measured. Results are expressed relative to wt GR-A (100%). Data represent means ± SEM of four experiments.

 


View larger version (31K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 6. Expression and Transcriptional Activity of phGR-wt- and phGR-ER22/23EK-ATG1-Kozak Mutants

A, AUG-1, the translation initiation start site of the GR represents bases +1, +2 and +3. The bases at position –3 and +4, relative to ATG-1 have been found to represent either a weak or strong Kozak consensus sequence, as indicated. B, In vitro translation of the GR-A and GR-B isoform from the indicated constructs using [35S]-methionine and reticulocyte lysates. Expressed proteins were electrophoresed on a 7% polyacrylamide gel and visualized by exposure to high-performance autoradiography film. C, COS-1 cells were cotransfected with each of the constructs phGR-A-wt, phGR-A-ER22/23EK (Table 1Go) and phGR-wt-ATG1-Kozak and phGR-ER22/23EK-ATG1-Kozak (Fig. 6AGo). After 5 h, cells were treated with 100 nM dexamethasone for 20 h and luciferase activity was measured. Results are expressed relative to wt GR-A, expressed from phGR-A-wt (100%). Data represent means ± SEM of four representative experiments. *, P < 0.05 by ANOVA.

 
GR mRNA Levels Transcribed from the GR Constructs
Increased GR-A expression from the phGR-A-ER22/23EK vector might be caused by differences in mRNA stability. To investigate differences in mRNA stability, mRNA levels were measured by quantitative real-time PCR in COS-1 cells expressing the GR variants. Furthermore, in peripheral blood mononuclear lymphocytes (PBMLs) of two heterozygous ER22/23EK carriers, the amounts of mRNA transcribed from both the wt and polymorphic allele were determined. Total RNA was isolated, cDNA was synthesized, and quantitative PCR (Q-PCR) was performed. No differences in mRNA levels transcribed from the different constructs were detected (Fig. 7AGo) and the total GR mRNA measured in heterozygous ER22/23EK-carriers consisted of 50% expressed from the wt and 50% expressed from the polymorphic allele (Fig. 7BGo). This implies that the ER22/23EK polymorphism does not influence mRNA stability.



View larger version (16K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 7. mRNA Levels Transcribed from the GR Variants

A, COS-1 cells were transfected with either the wt or polymorphic vector coding for either the GR-A (phGR-A-wt and phGR-A-ER22/23EK) or GR-B (phGR-B-wt and phGR-B-ER22/23EK) isoform. Twenty-four hours later, transcribed mRNA was isolated, cDNA was synthesized and expression levels of GR were determined by Q-PCR. Data were normalized to phGR-A-wt. B, From PBMLs of two heterozygous ER22/23EK-carriers and two wt carriers, total mRNA was isolated, cDNA was synthesized and levels of GR mRNA expressed from the wt allele and polymorphic allele was determined by Q-PCR. Data were normalized relative to the wt allele in homozygous wt carriers. Data represent means ± SEM of two experiments.

 

   DISCUSSION
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
 REFERENCES
 
Various polymorphisms of the human GR gene have been reported to be associated with variations in GC sensitivity (for reviews see Refs. 6 and 19), but for none of these, not even missense polymorphisms, a mechanism of action has been elucidated.

One of the most intriguing polymorphisms in the GR gene is the ER22/23EK polymorphism (7, 9, 10, 11), which is associated with a reduced GC sensitivity, and results in a phenotype that could be summarized as a more favorable metabolic profile (10), and, eventually, in survival benefits for carriers of this polymorphism (9). However, measurement of GR parameters in PBMLs from carriers of this polymorphism did not show any differences, nor did transient transfection assays by calcium phosphate precipitation (16). This transfection method is probably not sufficiently reproducible to distinguish between wt GR and this polymorphism, compared with current cationic liposome-mediated transfection methods (i.e. FuGENE6 used in this study).

Recently, Yudt and Cidlowski reported the existence of two translational variants of the GR: the GR-A, resulting from translation of the GR mRNA starting at the first AUG codon (Met-1) and the GR-B, for which translation starts at the second in-frame AUG codon (Met-27). These authors also showed that the GR-B protein is approximately 1.5-fold more active in transactivation from GREs or the mouse mammary tumor virus promoter than the GR-A protein (15). Selection of the translation start site by the ribosome is generally accepted to be dictated by the context of the AUG codon: a Kozak sequence (typically RNNAUGG; see Fig. 6AGo) should be present and there should be no in-frame stop codons nearby, whereas the secondary structure of the mRNA also plays a role in this process (20, 21). Suboptimal Kozak-sequences, such as the one surrounding the first AUG codon in the GR mRNA (CtgAUGG), can lead to slippage of the ribosomal 40S subunit, and utilization of one or more downstream AUG codons. Notably, the Met-27 AUG in the GR mRNA is surrounded by a stronger Kozak sequence (GtgAUGG) than the Met-1 AUG codon.

The fact that the ER22/23EK polymorphism is very close to both of the Met-1 and Met-27 translation initiation start sites led us to hypothesize that the change in nucleotide sequence (GAGAGG to GAAAAG) involved, might have consequences for the secondary structure of the GR mRNA. These changes might then influence the proportion in which the two initiation codons are used, resulting in altered rates of synthesis of GR-A and/or GR-B and possibly causing changes in the cellular GC sensitivity. Using the m-fold software (22, 23) for the prediction of secondary structures in nucleic acids, we did indeed find that the most stable secondary structures for the GR mRNA with the ER22/23EK polymorphism differed from those for the wt GR mRNA. Figure 8Go shows an example of this, indicating that the mRNA containing the polymorphism results in a more stable structure [lower Gibbs free energy of formation ({Delta}G)] than the wt, apparently changing the choice of initiation codon. More indications that secondary mRNA structure may play a role in the choice of initiation codon is the observation (24) that from a GR mRNA containing the alternative exon 1A3 instead of the more common exon 1C, substantially more GR-B is translated. Also, Breslin et al. (25) found that in CEM-C7 cells the quantity of this 1A3 containing mRNA is increased 2.5-fold upon GC treatment of the cells.



View larger version (24K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 8. The Change in Secondary Structure of the GR mRNA Caused by the ER22/23EK Polymorphism

The most favorable structures computed for nucleotides 133–213 (numbering according to Hollenberg et al.) for wt [(GAG)22(AGG)23] and mutant [(GAA)22(AAG)23], respectively.

 
The influence of the ER22/23EK polymorphism on synthesis of GR-A and GR-B proteins was investigated by expressing them independently from wt and polymorphic constructs and studying two parameters: the amount of specifically bound [3H]-dexamethasone as a measure for the amount of GR protein (Fig. 2Go), and the transcriptional activity of GR-A and GR-B in the presence of dexamethasone (Figs. 3Go and 4Go). These two experiments showed that, when translation is forced to start at AUG-1, using M27T plasmids, resulting in the synthesis of GR-A, approximately 15% more protein was expressed from the phGR-A-ER22/23EK, than from the wt construct phGR-A-wt (Fig. 2Go). The expression of GR-B from phGR-B-ER22/23EK and phGR-B-wt was not affected by the polymorphism, which indicates that the ER22/23EK polymorphism only influences translation initiation from the first AUG start site (Met-1). The amount of total GR (GR-A + GR-B) expressed from phGR-wt and phGR-ER22/23EK did not differ (Fig. 2Go), which means that the ER22/23EK polymorphism facilitates the expression of the less transcriptionally active GR-A, thereby reducing the expression of the more transcriptionally active GR-B.

Dose-response curves in cells in which both isoforms were synthesized showed that when the polymorphism was present (phGR-ER22/23EK), 14% less transcriptional activity was expressed than from the wt (phGR-wt) (Fig. 3Go). The observed change in ratio in which GR-A and GR-B were synthesized is a direct effect of altered translation initiation and is not caused by differences in mRNA levels because the ER22/23EK polymorphism did not affect transcription efficiency and/or mRNA stability (Fig. 7Go). Furthermore, the GR-A isoform has no dominant-negative effect on the transcriptional activity of GR-B or vice versa (Fig. 5Go), and the ER22/23EK polymorphism itself does not affect GR signaling (Fig. 6Go). Together, this indicates that the decrease in transcriptional activity of GR(ER22/23EK) is only caused by an increased GR-A/GR-B ratio, whereas total GR protein levels remain unaltered.

It has been suggested that GR-A and GR-B might be differentially expressed in a tissue-specific manner (26), which means that the impact of the ER22/23EK polymorphism also might vary among the different tissues.

In addition to translational variants of the GR, also splice variants exist: GR-{alpha}, GR-ß, and GR-P (13, 14). The GR-{alpha} is ubiquitously expressed and is the foremost mediator of GC effects. The GR-ß is much less abundant than GR-{alpha}, unable to bind ligand, and does not seem to possess transcriptional activity in itself (16). However, GR-ß can inhibit activity of the {alpha} isoform (27, 28), although controversy remains (29, 30, 31). The GR-P splice variant is also not able to bind ligand and is thought to increase the activity of GR-{alpha} (14). Alternative translation initiation also occurs on GR-ß and GR-P mRNA (26), and resulting isoform levels might also be influenced. These splice variants might play a role in the fine tuning of an individual’s sensitivity to GCs and when discussing the decreased sensitivity in ER22/23EK carriers, also a possible influence of this polymorphism on splice variants must be considered.

Although the differences reported here are relatively small, it should be emphasized that in vivo lifelong exposure to a slightly decreased sensitivity to GCs, as we see in ER22/23EK carriers, results in a better cardiovascular and metabolic health profile, as well as an increased chance of longevity. We postulate that a higher expression of the less transcriptionally active GR-A isoform, and thus a lower expression of the more transcriptionally active GR-B isoform, mainly cause this decrease in GC sensitivity. This shift in GR-A/GR-B expression ratio is evoked by the ER22/23EK polymorphism, possibly by changing the secondary structure of the mRNA of the GR, causing more translation initiation from the first AUG start site.


   MATERIALS AND METHODS
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
REFERENCES
 
Materials and Plasmids
Dexamethasone was purchased from Sigma-Aldrich Chemie (Steinheim, Germany). [3H]-dexamethasone (88 Ci/mmol) and L-[35S]-methionine (977 Ci/mmol) were purchased from Amersham Biosciences (Roozendaal, The Netherlands). Oligonucleotide primers for mutagenesis and Q-PCR were synthesized by Biosource Europe S.A. (Nivelles, Belgium).

The pcDNA3.1 and pCMV-renilla vectors were purchased from Invitrogen Life Technologies (Breda, The Netherlands) and Promega Benelux B.V. (Leiden, The Netherlands), respectively. The pRShGR{alpha} expression plasmid, the GRE-LUC reporter plasmid and pTZ plasmid were described previously (16, 32).

Construction of GR Plasmids
pcDNA3.1hGR{alpha} was generated by digesting pRShGR{alpha} with KpnI and XhoI. The resulting 3000-bp fragment was subsequently cloned into the KpnI and XhoI sites of pcDNA3.1. The pcDNA3.1hGR{alpha}(M27T) and pcDNA3.1hGR{alpha}(M1T) were generated to uniquely express GR-A and GR-B, respectively. The thymidine (T) residues at respectively cDNA positions 134 [numbering according to Hollenberg et al. (33)] and 212 of the pcDNA3.1hGR{alpha} vector were replaced by a cytidine (C). This mutagenesis was performed by using a QuikChange Site-Directed Mutagenesis Kit (Stratagene Europe, Amsterdam, The Netherlands) according to the manufacturer’s protocol. To mutate position 134 the forward primer: 5'-GCC AGA GTT GAT ATT CAC TGA CGG ACT CCA AAG AAT C-3' was used in combination with the reverse primer: 5'-GAT TCT TTG GAG TCC GTC AGT GAA TAT CAA CTC TGG C-3'. Position 212 was mutated with 5'-GAG AGG GGA GAT GTG ACG GAC TTC TAT AAA ACCCTA AG-3' as forward primer and 5'-CTT AGG GTT TTA TAG AAG TCC GTC ACA TCT CCC CTC TC-3' as reverse primer. To introduce the ER22/23EK polymorphism in the pcDNA3.1hGR{alpha}, pcDNA3.1hGR{alpha}(M1T) and pcDNA3.1hGR{alpha}(M27T) vectors, the guanosine (G) residues at positions 198 and 200 were replaced by an adenosine (A), by using 5'-CCC AGC AGT GTG CTT GCT CAG GAA AAG GGA GAT GTG-3' as forward primer and 5'-CAC ATC TCC CTT TTC CTG AGC AAG CAC ACT GCT GGG-3' as the reverse. A strong Kozak consensus site of the AUG-1 start site of pcDNA3.1hGR{alpha} and pcDNA3.1hGR{alpha}(ER22/23EK) was created by replacing a cytidine (C) residue at cDNA position 130 by a guanosine (G) by using 5'-GCC AGA GTT GAT ATT CAG TCA TGG ACT CCA AAG AAT C-3' as forward primer and 5'-GAT TCT TTG GAG TCC ATC ACT GAA TAT CAA CTC TGG C-3' as the reverse. The constructed GR plasmids: pcDNA3.1hGR{alpha}wt, pcDNA3.1hGR{alpha}(M27T), pcDNA3.1hGR{alpha}(M1T), pcDNA3.1hGR{alpha}(ER22/23EK), pcDNA3.1hGR{alpha}(ER22/23EK,M27T), and pcDNA3.1hGR{alpha}(M1T,ER22/23EK) are designated as phGR-wt, phGR-A-wt, phGR-B-wt, phGR-ER22/23EK, phGR-A-ER22/23EK, and phGR-B-ER22/23EK plasmids, respectively.

In Vitro Transcription and Translation
GR-A and/or GR-B proteins were formed from the phGR-wt, phGR-A-wt, phGR-B-wt, phGR-ER22/23EK, phGR-A-ER22/23EK, phGR-B-ER22/23EK, and Kozak mutant plasmids in vitro by using a TnT Quick Coupled Transcription/Translation System (Promega) using [35S]-methionine. A mixture of 20 µl TnT Quick Master Mix, 20 µCi [35S]-methionine, 1 µg plasmid DNA template, and nuclease-free water to a final volume of 25 µl was incubated at 30 C for 90 min. The result of translation was analyzed by SDS-PAGE (34) and visualized by exposure to high-performance autoradiography film (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech, Chalfont, UK) for 5 h at –70 C.

Cell Culture
Monkey kidney (COS-1) cells were maintained in a 5% CO2 humidified incubator at 37 C in DMEM tissue culture medium (Invitrogen) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (Invitrogen), 100 U/liter penicillin, 100 mg/liter streptomycin, and 1.25 mg/liter fungizone and passaged every 3–4 d.

Transfections
For transcription regulation studies, [3H]-dexamethasone-binding studies, and quantitation of mRNA transcription, COS-1 cells (6.0 x 106/ml) were plated at 3.0 x 105 cells per well (2.8 cm2) and grown for 24 h. Cells were transfected using FuGENE6 reagent (Roche Diagnostics Nederland B.V., Almere, The Netherlands). Per well, 0.7 µl of reagent was diluted in 100 µl serum-free medium and mixed with 215 ng plasmid DNA. This pool of plasmid DNA contained the indicated GR expression plasmids (7.5 ng), GRE-LUC reporter plasmid (50 ng), CMV-renilla expression plasmid (5 ng), and pTZ carrier plasmid (32). After an incubation period of 30 min at room temperature, the mixture was added to the cells. Cells were subsequently returned to the incubator until the reporter luciferase assay, [3H]-dexamethasone binding studies, or quantitative mRNA analysis.

[3H]-Dexamethasone Binding Capacity
Twenty-four hours after transfection, the cells were incubated in triplicate with 100 nM [3H]-dexamethasone for quantification of the total dexamethasone-binding capacity (no unlabeled dexamethasone) and the nonspecific dexamethasone binding (in the presence of 40 µM of unlabeled dexamethasone). After an incubation period of 2 h at 37 C, cells were washed two times with cold 0.15 M NaCl and lysed in 150 µl 1 M NaOH. After neutralization with 150 µl HCl, 1 ml Microscint-40 scintillation solution (Packard Biosciences B.V., Groningen, The Netherlands) was added and radioactivity was counted in a liquid scintillation counter (TOPCOUNT). Total binding minus nonspecific binding was taken to represent specific, receptor-mediated binding (35). Luminescence from the pCMV-renilla expression plasmid was measured to correct for transfection efficiency. When this procedure was carried out with untransfected COS-1 cells (no endogenous GR), there was no difference between total and nonspecific binding (not shown). This procedure is essentially the same as described for Scatchard analysis of the GR, albeit that only the maximal binding capacity is estimated (35).

Reporter Luciferase Assay
Four to six hours after transfection, the indicated concentrations of dexamethasone were added. Twenty hours later, cells were lysed in 50 µl lysis buffer [25 mM trisphosphate (pH 7.8), 15% glycerol, 1% Triton X-100, 1 mM dithiothreitol, 8 mM MgCl2]. Luciferase activity was measured in 20 µl in a TOPCOUNT (Packard, Applied Biosystems, Nieuwerkerk a/d IJssel, The Netherlands) luminometer, using the Dual-Glo Luciferase Assay System (Promega). By using the Stop&Glo reagents, luminescence was also measured from the pCMV-renilla expression plasmid, to correct for transfection efficiency.

Quantitative Analysis of Transcribed GR mRNA
Twenty-four hours after transfection, cells were washed with 0.15 M NaCl. Total RNA was isolated using a High Pure RNA Isolation Kit (Roche Diagnostics GmbH, Mannheim, Germany) according to the manufacturer’s protocol.

cDNA was synthesized in a reverse transcriptase reaction with Taqman Reverse Transcriptase Reagents (Applied Biosystems). The reaction contained 500 ng RNA, 5.5 mM MgCl2, 5 µl 10x reverse transcriptase buffer, 2 mM deoxynucleotide triphosphates, 5 µM random hexamers, 0.2 µM oligo deoxythymidine)16, 20 U ribonuclease inhibitor and 62.5 U MultiScribe reverse transcriptase in a total volume of 50 µl.

Q-PCR was performed using qPCR Core Kit (Eurogentec, Maastricht, The Netherlands) in a total reaction volume of 25 µl. The reaction contained 2.5 µl 10x reaction buffer, 5 mM MgCl2, 0.2 mM deoxynucleotide triphosphates, 300 nM forward primer, 300 nM reverse primer, 200 nM probe, 0.625 U HotGoldStar PCR enzyme, and 2 µl cDNA template, corresponding to 20 ng total RNA in the reverse transcriptase reaction. The reactions were carried out in an ABI 7700 Sequence Detector (Applied Biosystems). After an initial heating at 95 C for 8 min, samples were subjected to 40 cycles of denaturation at 95 C for 15 sec and annealing for 1 min at 60 C. The primer sequences used included: GR forward 5'-TGT TTT GCT CCT GAT CTG A-3'and GR reverse 5'-TCG GGG AAT TCA ATA CTC A-3'. The probe sequence for GR mRNA was: 5'-FAM-TGA CTC TAC CCT GCA TGT ACG AC-TAMRA-3'. The expression levels of the GR were calculated according to the comparative threshold method, according to the manufacturer’s guidelines.

Statistical Analysis
Data were analyzed statistically using Instat software version 2.01 (GraphPad Software, Inc., San Diego, CA). The differences in transcriptional activity and mRNA expression levels were determined using ANOVA. When significant overall effects were obtained by ANOVA, multiple comparisons were made using the Bonferroni test. Differences in [3H]-dexamethasone binding between the GR variants were analyzed nonparametrically using the Mann-Whitney test.


   FOOTNOTES
 
This work was supported by the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) under Grant 903-43-093.

First Published Online March 3, 2005

Abbreviations: GC, Glucocorticoid; GR, GC receptor; GRE, GC response element; PBML, peripheral blood mononuclear lymphocytes; Q-PCR, quantitative PCR; wt, wild type.

Received for publication November 18, 2004. Accepted for publication February 24, 2005.


   REFERENCES
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 REFERENCES
 

  1. Lamberts SW, Huizenga AT, de Lange P, de Jong FH, Koper JW 1996 Clinical aspects of glucocorticoid sensitivity. Steroids 61:157–160[CrossRef][Medline]
  2. Kino T, Chrousos GP 2001 Glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid resistance/hypersensitivity syndromes. J Endocrinol 169:437–445[Abstract]
  3. Johnson M 1996 Pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of inhaled glucocorticoids. J Allergy Clin Immunol 97:169–176[CrossRef][Medline]
  4. McKenna NJ, Lanz RB, O’Malley BW 1999 Nuclear receptor coregulators: cellular and molecular biology. Endocr Rev 20:321–344[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  5. Bronnegard M 1996 Steroid receptor number. Individual variation and downregulation by treatment. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 154:S28–S32; discussion S32–S33
  6. van Rossum EF, Lamberts SW 2004 Polymorphisms in the glucocorticoid receptor gene and their associations with metabolic parameters and body composition. Recent Prog Horm Res 59:333–357[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  7. Koper JW, Stolk RP, de Lange P, Huizenga NA, Molijn GJ, Pols HA, Grobbee DE, Karl M, de Jong FH, Brinkmann AO, Lamberts SW 1997 Lack of association between five polymorphisms in the human glucocorticoid receptor gene and glucocorticoid resistance. Hum Genet 99:663–668[CrossRef][Medline]
  8. Haverkate F, Thompson SG, Pyke SD, Gallimore JR, Pepys MB 1997 Production of C-reactive protein and risk of coronary events in stable and unstable angina. European Concerted Action on Thrombosis and Disabilities Angina Pectoris Study Group. Lancet 349:462–466[CrossRef][Medline]
  9. van Rossum EF, Feelders RA, van den Beld AW, Uitterlinden AG, Janssen JA, Ester W, Brinkmann AO, Grobbee DE, de Jong FH, Pols HA, Koper JW, Lamberts SW 2004 Association of the ER22/23EK polymorphism in the glucocorticoid receptor gene with survival and C-reactive protein levels in elderly men. Am J Med 117:158–162[CrossRef][Medline]
  10. van Rossum EF, Koper JW, Huizenga NA, Uitterlinden AG, Janssen JA, Brinkmann AO, Grobbee DE, de Jong FH, van Duyn CM, Pols HA, Lamberts SW 2002 A polymorphism in the glucocorticoid receptor gene, which decreases sensitivity to glucocorticoids in vivo, is associated with low insulin and cholesterol levels. Diabetes 51:3128–3134[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  11. van Rossum EF, Voorhoeve PG, te Velde SJ, Koper JW, Delemarre-van de Waal HA, Kemper HC, Lamberts SW 2004 The ER22/23EK polymorphism in the glucocorticoid receptor gene is associated with a beneficial body composition and muscle strength in young adults. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89:4004–4009[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  12. Breteler MM, van Swieten JC, Bots ML, Grobbee DE, Claus JJ, van den Hout JH, van Harskamp F, Tanghe HL, de Jong PT, van Gijn J, Hofman A 1994 Cerebral white matter lesions, vascular risk factors, and cognitive function in a population-based study: the Rotterdam Study. Neurology 44:1246–1252[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  13. Tissing WJ, Meijerink JP, den Boer ML, Pieters R 2003 Molecular determinants of glucocorticoid sensitivity and resistance in acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Leukemia 17:17–25[CrossRef][Medline]
  14. de Lange P, Segeren CM, Koper JW, Wiemer E, Sonneveld P, Brinkmann AO, White A, Brogan IJ, de Jong FH, Lamberts SW 2001 Expression in hematological malignancies of a glucocorticoid receptor splice variant that augments glucocorticoid receptor-mediated effects in transfected cells. Cancer Res 61:3937–3941[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  15. Yudt MR, Cidlowski JA 2001 Molecular identification and characterization of a and b forms of the glucocorticoid receptor. Mol Endocrinol 15:1093–1103[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  16. de Lange P, Koper JW, Huizenga NA, Brinkmann AO, de Jong FH, Karl M, Chrousos GP, Lamberts SW 1997 Differential hormone-dependent transcriptional activation and -repression by naturally occurring human glucocorticoid receptor variants. Mol Endocrinol 11:1156–1164[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  17. Giguere V, Hollenberg SM, Rosenfeld MG, Evans RM 1986 Functional domains of the human glucocorticoid receptor. Cell 46:645–652[CrossRef][Medline]
  18. Simons Jr SS 1994 Function/activity of specific amino acids in glucocorticoid receptors. Vitam Horm 49:49–130[Medline]
  19. Bray PJ, Cotton RG 2003 Variations of the human glucocorticoid receptor gene (NR3C1): pathological and in vitro mutations and polymorphisms. Hum Mutat 21:557–568[CrossRef][Medline]
  20. Kozak M 1990 Downstream secondary structure facilitates recognition of initiator codons by eukaryotic ribosomes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 87:8301–8305[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  21. Kozak M 1986 Influences of mRNA secondary structure on initiation by eukaryotic ribosomes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 83:2850–2854[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  22. Zuker M 2003 Mfold web server for nucleic acid folding and hybridization prediction. Nucleic Acids Res 31:3406–3415[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  23. Mathews DH, Sabina J, Zuker M, Turner DH 1999 Expanded sequence dependence of thermodynamic parameters improves prediction of RNA secondary structure. J Mol Biol 288:911–940[CrossRef][Medline]
  24. Pedersen KB, Geng CD, Vedeckis WV 2004 Three mechanisms are involved in glucocorticoid receptor autoregulation in a human T-lymphoblast cell line. Biochemistry 43:10851–10858[CrossRef][Medline]
  25. Breslin MB, Geng CD, Vedeckis WV 2001 Multiple promoters exist in the human GR gene, one of which is activated by glucocorticoids. Mol Endocrinol 15:1381–1395[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  26. Lu NZ, Cidlowski JA 2004 The origin and functions of multiple human glucocorticoid receptor isoforms. Ann NY Acad Sci 1024:102–123[CrossRef][Medline]
  27. Oakley RH, Jewell CM, Yudt MR, Bofetiado DM, Cidlowski JA 1999 The dominant negative activity of the human glucocorticoid receptor ß isoform. Specificity and mechanisms of action. J Biol Chem 274:27857–27866[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  28. Charmandari E, Chrousos GP, Ichijo T, Bhattacharyya N, Vottero A, Souvatzoglou E, Kino T 2005 The human glucocorticoid receptor (hGR) ß isoform suppresses the transcriptional activity of hGR{alpha} by interfering with formation of active coactivator complexes. Mol Endocrinol 19:52–64[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  29. Bamberger CM, Bamberger AM, de Castro M, Chrousos GP 1995 Glucocorticoid receptor ß, a potential endogenous inhibitor of glucocorticoid action in humans. J Clin Invest 95:2435–2441
  30. Oakley RH, Sar M, Cidlowski JA 1996 The human glucocorticoid receptor ß isoform. Expression, biochemical properties, and putative function. J Biol Chem 271:9550–9559[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  31. Hecht K, Carlstedt-Duke J, Stierna P, Gustafsson J, Bronnegard M, Wikstrom AC 1997 Evidence that the ß-isoform of the human glucocorticoid receptor does not act as a physiologically significant repressor. J Biol Chem 272:26659–26664[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  32. Veldscholte J, Ris-Stalpers C, Kuiper GG, Jenster G, Berrevoets C, Claassen E, van Rooij HC, Trapman J, Brinkmann AO, Mulder E 1990 A mutation in the ligand binding domain of the androgen receptor of human LNCaP cells affects steroid binding characteristics and response to anti-androgens. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 173:534–540[CrossRef][Medline]
  33. Hollenberg SM, Weinberger C, Ong ES, Cerelli G, Oro A, Lebo R, Thompson EB, Rosenfeld MG, Evans RM 1985 Primary structure and expression of a functional human glucocorticoid receptor cDNA. Nature 318:635–641[CrossRef][Medline]
  34. Kuiper GG, de Ruiter PE, Grootegoed JA, Brinkmann AO 1991 Synthesis and post-translational modification of the androgen receptor in LNCaP cells. Mol Cell Endocrinol 80:65–73[CrossRef][Medline]
  35. Koper JW, Molijn GJ, van Uffelen CJ, Stigter E, Lamberts SW 1997 Antiprogestins and iatrogenic glucocorticoid resistance. Life Sci 60:617–624[CrossRef][Medline]

NURSA Molecule Pages Link:

Nuclear Receptors:   GR
Ligands:   Dexamethasone



This article has been cited by other articles:


Home page
 J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.Home page
N. Niu, V. Manickam, K. R. Kalari, I. Moon, L. L. Pelleymounter, B. W. Eckloff, E. D. Wieben, D. J. Schaid, and L. Wang
Human Glucocorticoid Receptor {alpha} Gene (NR3C1) Pharmacogenomics: Gene Resequencing and Functional Genomics
J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., August 1, 2009; 94(8): 3072 - 3084.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.Home page
L. M. L. van Winsen, L. Manenschijn, E. F. C. van Rossum, B. A. Crusius, J. W. Koper, C. H. Polman, and B. M. J. Uitdehaag
A Glucocorticoid Receptor Gene Haplotype (TthIII1/ER22/23EK/9{beta}) Is Associated with a More Aggressive Disease Course in Multiple Sclerosis
J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., June 1, 2009; 94(6): 2110 - 2114.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Eur J EndocrinolHome page
H. Raef, E. Y Baitei, M. Zou, and Y. Shi
Genotype-phenotype correlation in a family with primary cortisol resistance: possible modulating effect of the ER22/23EK polymorphism.
Eur. J. Endocrinol., April 1, 2008; 158(4): 577 - 582.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Eur J EndocrinolHome page
B. R Walker
Glucocorticoids and Cardiovascular Disease
Eur. J. Endocrinol., November 1, 2007; 157(5): 545 - 559.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.Home page
K. C. M. C. Koeijvoets, E. F. C. van Rossum, G. M. Dallinga-Thie, E. W. Steyerberg, J. C. Defesche, J. J. P. Kastelein, S. W. J. Lamberts, and E. J. G. Sijbrands
A Functional Polymorphism in the Glucocorticoid Receptor Gene and Its Relation to Cardiovascular Disease Risk in Familial Hypercholesterolemia
J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., October 1, 2006; 91(10): 4131 - 4136.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Sci SignalHome page
G. P. Chrousos and T. Kino
Intracellular Glucocorticoid Signaling: A Formerly Simple System Turns Stochastic
Sci. Signal., October 4, 2005; 2005(304): pe48 - pe48.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.Home page
H. Russcher, P. Smit, E. L. T. van den Akker, E. F. C. van Rossum, A. O. Brinkmann, F. H. de Jong, S. W. J. Lamberts, and J. W. Koper
Two Polymorphisms in the Glucocorticoid Receptor Gene Directly Affect Glucocorticoid-Regulated Gene Expression
J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., October 1, 2005; 90(10): 5804 - 5810.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Right arrow Citation Map
Services
Right arrow Email this article to a friend
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrow NURSA Molecule Pages Link
Right arrow Request Copyright Permission
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Russcher, H.
Right arrow Articles by Koper, J. W.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Russcher, H.
Right arrow Articles by Koper, J. W.
Right arrowPubmed/NCBI databases
*Gene*GEO Profiles
*HomoloGene*UniGene
*Compound via MeSH
*Substance via MeSH
Hazardous Substances DB
*(L)-ARGININE
*DEXAMETHASONE
*L-LYSINE

HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS
Endocrinology Endocrine Reviews J. Clin. End. & Metab.
Molecular Endocrinology Recent Prog. Horm. Res. All Endocrine Journals